From 98d5db5c2ebed6ade6ff424215d7deae67f4593b Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Hui Xiao <huixiao@fb.com>
Date: Tue, 13 Dec 2022 13:29:37 -0800
Subject: [PATCH] Sort L0 files by newly introduced epoch_num (#10922)

Summary:
**Context:**
Sorting L0 files by `largest_seqno` has at least two inconvenience:
-  File ingestion and compaction involving ingested files can create files of overlapping seqno range with the existing files. `force_consistency_check=true` will catch such overlap seqno range even those harmless overlap.
    - For example, consider the following sequence of events ("key@n" indicates key at seqno "n")
       - insert k1@1 to memtable m1
       - ingest file s1 with k2@2, ingest file s2 with k3@3
        - insert k4@4 to m1
       - compact files s1, s2 and  result in new file s3 of seqno range [2, 3]
       - flush m1 and result in new file s4 of seqno range [1, 4]. And `force_consistency_check=true` will think s4 and s3 has file reordering corruption that might cause retuning an old value of k1
    - However such caught corruption is a false positive since s1, s2 will not have overlapped keys with k1 or whatever inserted into m1 before ingest file s1 by the requirement of file ingestion (otherwise the m1 will be flushed first before any of the file ingestion completes). Therefore there in fact isn't any file reordering corruption.
- Single delete can decrease a file's largest seqno and ordering by `largest_seqno` can introduce a wrong ordering hence file reordering corruption
    - For example, consider the following sequence of events ("key@n" indicates key at seqno "n", Credit to ajkr  for this example)
        - an existing SST s1 contains only k1@1
        - insert k1@2 to memtable m1
        - ingest file s2 with k3@3, ingest file s3 with k4@4
        - insert single delete k5@5 in m1
        - flush m1 and result in new file s4 of seqno range [2, 5]
        - compact s1, s2, s3 and result in new file s5 of seqno range [1, 4]
        - compact s4 and result in new file s6 of seqno range [2] due to single delete
    - By the last step, we have file ordering by largest seqno (">" means "newer") : s5 > s6 while s6 contains a newer version of the k1's value (i.e, k1@2) than s5, which is a real reordering corruption. While this can be caught by `force_consistency_check=true`, there isn't a good way to prevent this from happening if ordering by `largest_seqno`

Therefore, we are redesigning the sorting criteria of L0 files and avoid above inconvenience. Credit to ajkr , we now introduce `epoch_num` which describes the order of a file being flushed or ingested/imported (compaction output file will has the minimum `epoch_num` among input files'). This will avoid the above inconvenience in the following ways:
- In the first case above, there will no longer be overlap seqno range check in `force_consistency_check=true` but `epoch_number`  ordering check. This will result in file ordering s1 <  s2 <  s4 (pre-compaction) and s3 < s4 (post-compaction) which won't trigger false positive corruption. See test class `DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption*` for more.
- In the second case above, this will result in file ordering s1 < s2 < s3 < s4 (pre-compacting s1, s2, s3), s5 < s4 (post-compacting s1, s2, s3), s5 < s6 (post-compacting s4), which are correct file ordering without causing any corruption.

**Summary:**
- Introduce `epoch_number` stored per `ColumnFamilyData` and sort CF's L0 files by their assigned `epoch_number` instead of `largest_seqno`.
  - `epoch_number` is increased and assigned upon `VersionEdit::AddFile()` for flush (or similarly for WriteLevel0TableForRecovery) and file ingestion (except for allow_behind_true, which will always get assigned as the `kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind`)
  - Compaction output file  is assigned with the minimum `epoch_number` among input files'
      - Refit level: reuse refitted file's epoch_number
  -  Other paths needing `epoch_number` treatment:
     - Import column families: reuse file's epoch_number if exists. If not, assign one based on `NewestFirstBySeqNo`
     - Repair: reuse file's epoch_number if exists. If not, assign one based on `NewestFirstBySeqNo`.
  -  Assigning new epoch_number to a file and adding this file to LSM tree should be atomic. This is guaranteed by us assigning epoch_number right upon `VersionEdit::AddFile()` where this version edit will be apply to LSM tree shape right after by holding the db mutex (e.g, flush, file ingestion, import column family) or  by there is only 1 ongoing edit per CF (e.g, WriteLevel0TableForRecovery, Repair).
  - Assigning the minimum input epoch number to compaction output file won't misorder L0 files (even through later `Refit(target_level=0)`). It's due to for every key "k" in the input range, a legit compaction will cover a continuous epoch number range of that key. As long as we assign the key "k" the minimum input epoch number, it won't become newer or older than the versions of this key that aren't included in this compaction hence no misorder.
- Persist `epoch_number` of each file in manifest and recover `epoch_number` on db recovery
   - Backward compatibility with old db without `epoch_number` support is guaranteed by assigning `epoch_number` to recovered files by `NewestFirstBySeqno` order. See `VersionStorageInfo::RecoverEpochNumbers()` for more
   - Forward compatibility with manifest is guaranteed by flexibility of `NewFileCustomTag`
- Replace `force_consistent_check` on L0 with `epoch_number` and remove false positive check like case 1 with `largest_seqno` above
   - Due to backward compatibility issue, we might encounter files with missing epoch number at the beginning of db recovery. We will still use old L0 sorting mechanism (`NewestFirstBySeqno`) to check/sort them till we infer their epoch number. See usages of `EpochNumberRequirement`.
- Remove fix https://github.com/facebook/rocksdb/pull/5958#issue-511150930 and their outdated tests to file reordering corruption because such fix can be replaced by this PR.
- Misc:
   - update existing tests with `epoch_number` so make check will pass
   - update https://github.com/facebook/rocksdb/pull/5958#issue-511150930 tests to verify corruption is fixed using `epoch_number` and cover universal/fifo compaction/CompactRange/CompactFile cases
   - assert db_mutex is held for a few places before calling ColumnFamilyData::NewEpochNumber()

Pull Request resolved: https://github.com/facebook/rocksdb/pull/10922

Test Plan:
- `make check`
- New unit tests under `db/db_compaction_test.cc`, `db/db_test2.cc`, `db/version_builder_test.cc`, `db/repair_test.cc`
- Updated tests (i.e, `DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption*`) under https://github.com/facebook/rocksdb/pull/5958#issue-511150930
- [Ongoing] Compatibility test: manually run https://github.com/ajkr/rocksdb/commit/36a5686ec012f35a4371e409aa85c404ca1c210d (with file ingestion off for running the `.orig` binary to prevent this bug affecting upgrade/downgrade formality checking) for 1 hour on `simple black/white box`, `cf_consistency/txn/enable_ts with whitebox + test_best_efforts_recovery with blackbox`
- [Ongoing] normal db stress test
- [Ongoing] db stress test with aggressive value https://github.com/facebook/rocksdb/pull/10761

Reviewed By: ajkr

Differential Revision: D41063187

Pulled By: hx235

fbshipit-source-id: 826cb23455de7beaabe2d16c57682a82733a32a9
---
 HISTORY.md                                   |   2 +
 db/column_family.cc                          |  15 +-
 db/column_family.h                           |  20 +
 db/compaction/compaction.cc                  |  10 +
 db/compaction/compaction.h                   |   3 +
 db/compaction/compaction_job.cc              |   2 +
 db/compaction/compaction_job.h               |   6 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_job_test.cc         |  14 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker.cc           |  23 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker.h            |  33 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.cc      |   2 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.h       |  10 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.cc     |  16 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.h      |  10 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker_test.cc      | 130 ++--
 db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.cc |   6 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.h  |  10 +-
 db/compaction/compaction_service_job.cc      |  10 +-
 db/db_compaction_test.cc                     | 731 +++++++++++++++----
 db/db_impl/db_impl.cc                        |   2 +
 db/db_impl/db_impl_compaction_flush.cc       |   9 +-
 db/db_impl/db_impl_experimental.cc           |   2 +-
 db/db_impl/db_impl_open.cc                   |  16 +-
 db/db_test.cc                                |   3 +
 db/db_test2.cc                               | 225 ++++++
 db/experimental.cc                           |   2 +-
 db/external_sst_file_ingestion_job.cc        |   7 +-
 db/flush_job.cc                              |   7 +-
 db/import_column_family_job.cc               |  38 +-
 db/repair.cc                                 |  86 ++-
 db/repair_test.cc                            |  54 ++
 db/version_builder.cc                        | 133 ++--
 db/version_builder.h                         |  20 +
 db/version_builder_test.cc                   | 257 +++++--
 db/version_edit.cc                           |  16 +-
 db/version_edit.h                            |  20 +-
 db/version_edit_handler.cc                   |  19 +-
 db/version_edit_handler.h                    |  23 +-
 db/version_edit_test.cc                      |  34 +-
 db/version_set.cc                            | 123 +++-
 db/version_set.h                             |  34 +-
 db/version_set_test.cc                       |  70 +-
 include/rocksdb/metadata.h                   |  12 +-
 utilities/checkpoint/checkpoint_impl.cc      |   1 +
 44 files changed, 1780 insertions(+), 486 deletions(-)

diff --git a/HISTORY.md b/HISTORY.md
index b762388aa..314666501 100644
--- a/HISTORY.md
+++ b/HISTORY.md
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 ## Unreleased
 ### Behavior changes
 * Make best-efforts recovery verify SST unique ID before Version construction (#10962)
+* Introduce `epoch_number` and sort L0 files by `epoch_number` instead of `largest_seqno`. `epoch_number` represents the order of a file being flushed or ingested/imported. Compaction output file will be assigned with the minimum `epoch_number` among input files'. For L0, larger `epoch_number` indicates newer L0 file.
 
 ### Bug Fixes
 * Fixed a regression in iterator where range tombstones after `iterate_upper_bound` is processed.
@@ -9,6 +10,7 @@
 * Fixed a bug that multi-level FIFO compaction deletes one file in non-L0 even when `CompactionOptionsFIFO::max_table_files_size` is no exceeded since #10348 or 7.8.0.
 * Fixed a bug caused by `DB::SyncWAL()` affecting `track_and_verify_wals_in_manifest`. Without the fix, application may see "open error: Corruption: Missing WAL with log number" while trying to open the db. The corruption is a false alarm but prevents DB open (#10892).
 * Fixed a BackupEngine bug in which RestoreDBFromLatestBackup would fail if the latest backup was deleted and there is another valid backup available.
+* Fix L0 file misorder corruption caused by ingesting files of overlapping seqnos with memtable entries' through introducing `epoch_number`. Before the fix, `force_consistency_checks=true` may catch the corruption before it's exposed to readers, in which case writes returning `Status::Corruption` would be expected. Also replace the previous incomplete fix (#5958) to the same corruption with this new and more complete fix.
 
 ## 7.9.0 (11/21/2022)
 ### Performance Improvements
diff --git a/db/column_family.cc b/db/column_family.cc
index 268060ddf..d9875336c 100644
--- a/db/column_family.cc
+++ b/db/column_family.cc
@@ -565,7 +565,8 @@ ColumnFamilyData::ColumnFamilyData(
       allow_2pc_(db_options.allow_2pc),
       last_memtable_id_(0),
       db_paths_registered_(false),
-      mempurge_used_(false) {
+      mempurge_used_(false),
+      next_epoch_number_(1) {
   if (id_ != kDummyColumnFamilyDataId) {
     // TODO(cc): RegisterDbPaths can be expensive, considering moving it
     // outside of this constructor which might be called with db mutex held.
@@ -1128,12 +1129,9 @@ bool ColumnFamilyData::NeedsCompaction() const {
 Compaction* ColumnFamilyData::PickCompaction(
     const MutableCFOptions& mutable_options,
     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, LogBuffer* log_buffer) {
-  SequenceNumber earliest_mem_seqno =
-      std::min(mem_->GetEarliestSequenceNumber(),
-               imm_.current()->GetEarliestSequenceNumber(false));
   auto* result = compaction_picker_->PickCompaction(
       GetName(), mutable_options, mutable_db_options, current_->storage_info(),
-      log_buffer, earliest_mem_seqno);
+      log_buffer);
   if (result != nullptr) {
     result->SetInputVersion(current_);
   }
@@ -1520,6 +1518,13 @@ FSDirectory* ColumnFamilyData::GetDataDir(size_t path_id) const {
   return data_dirs_[path_id].get();
 }
 
+void ColumnFamilyData::RecoverEpochNumbers() {
+  assert(current_);
+  auto* vstorage = current_->storage_info();
+  assert(vstorage);
+  vstorage->RecoverEpochNumbers(this);
+}
+
 ColumnFamilySet::ColumnFamilySet(const std::string& dbname,
                                  const ImmutableDBOptions* db_options,
                                  const FileOptions& file_options,
diff --git a/db/column_family.h b/db/column_family.h
index 3e6d01d22..ff4eca514 100644
--- a/db/column_family.h
+++ b/db/column_family.h
@@ -533,6 +533,24 @@ class ColumnFamilyData {
   void SetMempurgeUsed() { mempurge_used_ = true; }
   bool GetMempurgeUsed() { return mempurge_used_; }
 
+  // Allocate and return a new epoch number
+  uint64_t NewEpochNumber() { return next_epoch_number_.fetch_add(1); }
+
+  // Get the next epoch number to be assigned
+  uint64_t GetNextEpochNumber() const { return next_epoch_number_.load(); }
+
+  // Set the next epoch number to be assigned
+  void SetNextEpochNumber(uint64_t next_epoch_number) {
+    next_epoch_number_.store(next_epoch_number);
+  }
+
+  // Reset the next epoch number to be assigned
+  void ResetNextEpochNumber() { next_epoch_number_.store(1); }
+
+  // Recover the next epoch number of this CF and epoch number
+  // of its files (if missing)
+  void RecoverEpochNumbers();
+
  private:
   friend class ColumnFamilySet;
   ColumnFamilyData(uint32_t id, const std::string& name,
@@ -634,6 +652,8 @@ class ColumnFamilyData {
   // a Version associated with this CFD
   std::shared_ptr<CacheReservationManager> file_metadata_cache_res_mgr_;
   bool mempurge_used_;
+
+  std::atomic<uint64_t> next_epoch_number_;
 };
 
 // ColumnFamilySet has interesting thread-safety requirements
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction.cc b/db/compaction/compaction.cc
index 01b5a570b..47ca8d1a9 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction.cc
@@ -780,6 +780,16 @@ uint64_t Compaction::MinInputFileOldestAncesterTime(
   return min_oldest_ancester_time;
 }
 
+uint64_t Compaction::MinInputFileEpochNumber() const {
+  uint64_t min_epoch_number = std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max();
+  for (const auto& inputs_per_level : inputs_) {
+    for (const auto& file : inputs_per_level.files) {
+      min_epoch_number = std::min(min_epoch_number, file->epoch_number);
+    }
+  }
+  return min_epoch_number;
+}
+
 int Compaction::EvaluatePenultimateLevel(
     const VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
     const ImmutableOptions& immutable_options, const int start_level,
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction.h b/db/compaction/compaction.h
index 21d1190ac..ee8639601 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction.h
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction.h
@@ -378,6 +378,9 @@ class Compaction {
   // This is used to filter out some input files' ancester's time range.
   uint64_t MinInputFileOldestAncesterTime(const InternalKey* start,
                                           const InternalKey* end) const;
+  // Return the minimum epoch number among
+  // input files' associated with this compaction
+  uint64_t MinInputFileEpochNumber() const;
 
   // Called by DBImpl::NotifyOnCompactionCompleted to make sure number of
   // compaction begin and compaction completion callbacks match.
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_job.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_job.cc
index 1da1bcda8..24b05a8de 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_job.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_job.cc
@@ -1834,12 +1834,14 @@ Status CompactionJob::OpenCompactionOutputFile(SubcompactionState* sub_compact,
   }
 
   // Initialize a SubcompactionState::Output and add it to sub_compact->outputs
+  uint64_t epoch_number = sub_compact->compaction->MinInputFileEpochNumber();
   {
     FileMetaData meta;
     meta.fd = FileDescriptor(file_number,
                              sub_compact->compaction->output_path_id(), 0);
     meta.oldest_ancester_time = oldest_ancester_time;
     meta.file_creation_time = current_time;
+    meta.epoch_number = epoch_number;
     meta.temperature = temperature;
     assert(!db_id_.empty());
     assert(!db_session_id_.empty());
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_job.h b/db/compaction/compaction_job.h
index bfbce1011..2f8cb08da 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_job.h
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_job.h
@@ -402,6 +402,7 @@ struct CompactionServiceOutputFile {
   std::string largest_internal_key;
   uint64_t oldest_ancester_time;
   uint64_t file_creation_time;
+  uint64_t epoch_number;
   uint64_t paranoid_hash;
   bool marked_for_compaction;
   UniqueId64x2 unique_id;
@@ -411,8 +412,8 @@ struct CompactionServiceOutputFile {
       const std::string& name, SequenceNumber smallest, SequenceNumber largest,
       std::string _smallest_internal_key, std::string _largest_internal_key,
       uint64_t _oldest_ancester_time, uint64_t _file_creation_time,
-      uint64_t _paranoid_hash, bool _marked_for_compaction,
-      UniqueId64x2 _unique_id)
+      uint64_t _epoch_number, uint64_t _paranoid_hash,
+      bool _marked_for_compaction, UniqueId64x2 _unique_id)
       : file_name(name),
         smallest_seqno(smallest),
         largest_seqno(largest),
@@ -420,6 +421,7 @@ struct CompactionServiceOutputFile {
         largest_internal_key(std::move(_largest_internal_key)),
         oldest_ancester_time(_oldest_ancester_time),
         file_creation_time(_file_creation_time),
+        epoch_number(_epoch_number),
         paranoid_hash(_paranoid_hash),
         marked_for_compaction(_marked_for_compaction),
         unique_id(std::move(_unique_id)) {}
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_job_test.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_job_test.cc
index c87871100..8b312ea78 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_job_test.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_job_test.cc
@@ -380,11 +380,13 @@ class CompactionJobTestBase : public testing::Test {
     }
 
     VersionEdit edit;
-    edit.AddFile(level, file_number, 0, file_size, smallest_key, largest_key,
-                 smallest_seqno, largest_seqno, false, Temperature::kUnknown,
-                 oldest_blob_file_number, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-                 kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
-                 kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+    edit.AddFile(
+        level, file_number, 0, file_size, smallest_key, largest_key,
+        smallest_seqno, largest_seqno, false, Temperature::kUnknown,
+        oldest_blob_file_number, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+        kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+        versions_->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault()->NewEpochNumber(),
+        kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
     mutex_.Lock();
     EXPECT_OK(
@@ -1655,7 +1657,7 @@ TEST_F(CompactionJobTest, ResultSerialization) {
         rnd.RandomBinaryString(rnd.Uniform(kStrMaxLen)),
         rnd.RandomBinaryString(rnd.Uniform(kStrMaxLen)),
         rnd64.Uniform(UINT64_MAX), rnd64.Uniform(UINT64_MAX),
-        rnd64.Uniform(UINT64_MAX), rnd.OneIn(2), id);
+        rnd64.Uniform(UINT64_MAX), rnd64.Uniform(UINT64_MAX), rnd.OneIn(2), id);
   }
   result.output_level = rnd.Uniform(10);
   result.output_path = rnd.RandomString(rnd.Uniform(kStrMaxLen));
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_picker.cc
index abdecca9f..de2570eee 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker.cc
@@ -31,27 +31,15 @@ bool FindIntraL0Compaction(const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& level_files,
                            size_t min_files_to_compact,
                            uint64_t max_compact_bytes_per_del_file,
                            uint64_t max_compaction_bytes,
-                           CompactionInputFiles* comp_inputs,
-                           SequenceNumber earliest_mem_seqno) {
-  // Do not pick ingested file when there is at least one memtable not flushed
-  // which of seqno is overlap with the sst.
+                           CompactionInputFiles* comp_inputs) {
   TEST_SYNC_POINT("FindIntraL0Compaction");
+
   size_t start = 0;
-  for (; start < level_files.size(); start++) {
-    if (level_files[start]->being_compacted) {
-      return false;
-    }
-    // If there is no data in memtable, the earliest sequence number would the
-    // largest sequence number in last memtable.
-    // Because all files are sorted in descending order by largest_seqno, so we
-    // only need to check the first one.
-    if (level_files[start]->fd.largest_seqno <= earliest_mem_seqno) {
-      break;
-    }
-  }
-  if (start >= level_files.size()) {
+
+  if (level_files.size() == 0 || level_files[start]->being_compacted) {
     return false;
   }
+
   size_t compact_bytes = static_cast<size_t>(level_files[start]->fd.file_size);
   size_t compact_bytes_per_del_file = std::numeric_limits<size_t>::max();
   // Compaction range will be [start, limit).
@@ -995,6 +983,7 @@ Status CompactionPicker::SanitizeCompactionInputFilesForAllLevels(
                                current_files[f].name +
                                " is currently being compacted.");
       }
+
       input_files->insert(TableFileNameToNumber(current_files[f].name));
     }
 
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker.h b/db/compaction/compaction_picker.h
index 7739dd96b..d98af851b 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker.h
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker.h
@@ -51,14 +51,15 @@ class CompactionPicker {
   virtual ~CompactionPicker();
 
   // Pick level and inputs for a new compaction.
+  //
   // Returns nullptr if there is no compaction to be done.
   // Otherwise returns a pointer to a heap-allocated object that
   // describes the compaction.  Caller should delete the result.
-  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(
-      const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
-      const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
-      LogBuffer* log_buffer,
-      SequenceNumber earliest_memtable_seqno = kMaxSequenceNumber) = 0;
+  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(const std::string& cf_name,
+                                     const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
+                                     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options,
+                                     VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
+                                     LogBuffer* log_buffer) = 0;
 
   // Return a compaction object for compacting the range [begin,end] in
   // the specified level.  Returns nullptr if there is nothing in that
@@ -91,6 +92,7 @@ class CompactionPicker {
 // files.  If it's not possible to conver an invalid input_files
 // into a valid one by adding more files, the function will return a
 // non-ok status with specific reason.
+//
 #ifndef ROCKSDB_LITE
   Status SanitizeCompactionInputFiles(std::unordered_set<uint64_t>* input_files,
                                       const ColumnFamilyMetaData& cf_meta,
@@ -255,12 +257,11 @@ class NullCompactionPicker : public CompactionPicker {
   virtual ~NullCompactionPicker() {}
 
   // Always return "nullptr"
-  Compaction* PickCompaction(
-      const std::string& /*cf_name*/,
-      const MutableCFOptions& /*mutable_cf_options*/,
-      const MutableDBOptions& /*mutable_db_options*/,
-      VersionStorageInfo* /*vstorage*/, LogBuffer* /* log_buffer */,
-      SequenceNumber /* earliest_memtable_seqno */) override {
+  Compaction* PickCompaction(const std::string& /*cf_name*/,
+                             const MutableCFOptions& /*mutable_cf_options*/,
+                             const MutableDBOptions& /*mutable_db_options*/,
+                             VersionStorageInfo* /*vstorage*/,
+                             LogBuffer* /* log_buffer */) override {
     return nullptr;
   }
 
@@ -304,11 +305,11 @@ class NullCompactionPicker : public CompactionPicker {
 //                                        files. Cannot be nullptr.
 //
 // @return                                true iff compaction was found.
-bool FindIntraL0Compaction(
-    const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& level_files, size_t min_files_to_compact,
-    uint64_t max_compact_bytes_per_del_file, uint64_t max_compaction_bytes,
-    CompactionInputFiles* comp_inputs,
-    SequenceNumber earliest_mem_seqno = kMaxSequenceNumber);
+bool FindIntraL0Compaction(const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& level_files,
+                           size_t min_files_to_compact,
+                           uint64_t max_compact_bytes_per_del_file,
+                           uint64_t max_compaction_bytes,
+                           CompactionInputFiles* comp_inputs);
 
 CompressionType GetCompressionType(const VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
                                    const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.cc
index b370dd1da..362e64e16 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.cc
@@ -402,7 +402,7 @@ Compaction* FIFOCompactionPicker::PickCompactionToWarm(
 Compaction* FIFOCompactionPicker::PickCompaction(
     const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
-    LogBuffer* log_buffer, SequenceNumber /*earliest_memtable_seqno*/) {
+    LogBuffer* log_buffer) {
   Compaction* c = nullptr;
   if (mutable_cf_options.ttl > 0) {
     c = PickTTLCompaction(cf_name, mutable_cf_options, mutable_db_options,
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.h b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.h
index 544259f38..1db760185 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.h
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_fifo.h
@@ -19,11 +19,11 @@ class FIFOCompactionPicker : public CompactionPicker {
                        const InternalKeyComparator* icmp)
       : CompactionPicker(ioptions, icmp) {}
 
-  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(
-      const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
-      const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, VersionStorageInfo* version,
-      LogBuffer* log_buffer,
-      SequenceNumber earliest_memtable_seqno = kMaxSequenceNumber) override;
+  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(const std::string& cf_name,
+                                     const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
+                                     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options,
+                                     VersionStorageInfo* version,
+                                     LogBuffer* log_buffer) override;
 
   virtual Compaction* CompactRange(
       const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.cc
index b689b6add..31987fc52 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.cc
@@ -50,7 +50,6 @@ class LevelCompactionBuilder {
  public:
   LevelCompactionBuilder(const std::string& cf_name,
                          VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
-                         SequenceNumber earliest_mem_seqno,
                          CompactionPicker* compaction_picker,
                          LogBuffer* log_buffer,
                          const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
@@ -58,7 +57,6 @@ class LevelCompactionBuilder {
                          const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options)
       : cf_name_(cf_name),
         vstorage_(vstorage),
-        earliest_mem_seqno_(earliest_mem_seqno),
         compaction_picker_(compaction_picker),
         log_buffer_(log_buffer),
         mutable_cf_options_(mutable_cf_options),
@@ -122,7 +120,6 @@ class LevelCompactionBuilder {
 
   const std::string& cf_name_;
   VersionStorageInfo* vstorage_;
-  SequenceNumber earliest_mem_seqno_;
   CompactionPicker* compaction_picker_;
   LogBuffer* log_buffer_;
   int start_level_ = -1;
@@ -196,7 +193,10 @@ void LevelCompactionBuilder::SetupInitialFiles() {
       }
       output_level_ =
           (start_level_ == 0) ? vstorage_->base_level() : start_level_ + 1;
-      if (PickFileToCompact()) {
+      bool picked_file_to_compact = PickFileToCompact();
+      TEST_SYNC_POINT_CALLBACK("PostPickFileToCompact",
+                               &picked_file_to_compact);
+      if (picked_file_to_compact) {
         // found the compaction!
         if (start_level_ == 0) {
           // L0 score = `num L0 files` / `level0_file_num_compaction_trigger`
@@ -825,16 +825,16 @@ bool LevelCompactionBuilder::PickIntraL0Compaction() {
   return FindIntraL0Compaction(level_files, kMinFilesForIntraL0Compaction,
                                std::numeric_limits<uint64_t>::max(),
                                mutable_cf_options_.max_compaction_bytes,
-                               &start_level_inputs_, earliest_mem_seqno_);
+                               &start_level_inputs_);
 }
 }  // namespace
 
 Compaction* LevelCompactionPicker::PickCompaction(
     const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
-    LogBuffer* log_buffer, SequenceNumber earliest_mem_seqno) {
-  LevelCompactionBuilder builder(cf_name, vstorage, earliest_mem_seqno, this,
-                                 log_buffer, mutable_cf_options, ioptions_,
+    LogBuffer* log_buffer) {
+  LevelCompactionBuilder builder(cf_name, vstorage, this, log_buffer,
+                                 mutable_cf_options, ioptions_,
                                  mutable_db_options);
   return builder.PickCompaction();
 }
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.h b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.h
index 42a9b60a6..6eb0f586f 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.h
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_level.h
@@ -20,11 +20,11 @@ class LevelCompactionPicker : public CompactionPicker {
   LevelCompactionPicker(const ImmutableOptions& ioptions,
                         const InternalKeyComparator* icmp)
       : CompactionPicker(ioptions, icmp) {}
-  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(
-      const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
-      const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
-      LogBuffer* log_buffer,
-      SequenceNumber earliest_memtable_seqno = kMaxSequenceNumber) override;
+  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(const std::string& cf_name,
+                                     const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
+                                     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options,
+                                     VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
+                                     LogBuffer* log_buffer) override;
 
   virtual bool NeedsCompaction(
       const VersionStorageInfo* vstorage) const override;
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_test.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_test.cc
index 2e2e566c0..dfc508fc5 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_test.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_test.cc
@@ -77,8 +77,9 @@ class CompactionPickerTestBase : public testing::Test {
   void NewVersionStorage(int num_levels, CompactionStyle style) {
     DeleteVersionStorage();
     options_.num_levels = num_levels;
-    vstorage_.reset(new VersionStorageInfo(&icmp_, ucmp_, options_.num_levels,
-                                           style, nullptr, false));
+    vstorage_.reset(new VersionStorageInfo(
+        &icmp_, ucmp_, options_.num_levels, style, nullptr, false,
+        EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent));
     vstorage_->PrepareForVersionAppend(ioptions_, mutable_cf_options_);
   }
 
@@ -87,7 +88,7 @@ class CompactionPickerTestBase : public testing::Test {
   void AddVersionStorage() {
     temp_vstorage_.reset(new VersionStorageInfo(
         &icmp_, ucmp_, options_.num_levels, ioptions_.compaction_style,
-        vstorage_.get(), false));
+        vstorage_.get(), false, EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent));
   }
 
   void DeleteVersionStorage() {
@@ -105,7 +106,8 @@ class CompactionPickerTestBase : public testing::Test {
            size_t compensated_file_size = 0, bool marked_for_compact = false,
            Temperature temperature = Temperature::kUnknown,
            uint64_t oldest_ancestor_time = kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-           Slice ts_of_smallest = Slice(), Slice ts_of_largest = Slice()) {
+           Slice ts_of_smallest = Slice(), Slice ts_of_largest = Slice(),
+           uint64_t epoch_number = kUnknownEpochNumber) {
     assert(ts_of_smallest.size() == ucmp_->timestamp_size());
     assert(ts_of_largest.size() == ucmp_->timestamp_size());
 
@@ -145,7 +147,7 @@ class CompactionPickerTestBase : public testing::Test {
         file_number, path_id, file_size, smallest_ikey, largest_ikey,
         smallest_seq, largest_seq, marked_for_compact, temperature,
         kInvalidBlobFileNumber, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-        kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+        kUnknownFileCreationTime, epoch_number, kUnknownFileChecksum,
         kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
     f->compensated_file_size =
         (compensated_file_size != 0) ? compensated_file_size : file_size;
@@ -2871,38 +2873,6 @@ TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, IntraL0MaxCompactionBytesHit) {
   ASSERT_EQ(0, compaction->output_level());
 }
 
-TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, IntraL0ForEarliestSeqno) {
-  // Intra L0 compaction triggers only if there are at least
-  // level0_file_num_compaction_trigger + 2 L0 files.
-  mutable_cf_options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger = 3;
-  mutable_cf_options_.max_compaction_bytes = 999999u;
-  NewVersionStorage(6, kCompactionStyleLevel);
-
-  // 4 out of 6 L0 files will be picked for intra L0 compaction due to
-  // being_compact limit. And the latest one L0 will be skipped due to earliest
-  // seqno. The one L1 file spans entire L0 key range and is marked as being
-  // compacted to avoid L0->L1 compaction.
-  Add(1, 1U, "100", "350", 200000U, 0, 110, 111);
-  Add(0, 2U, "301", "350", 1U, 0, 108, 109);
-  Add(0, 3U, "251", "300", 1U, 0, 106, 107);
-  Add(0, 4U, "201", "250", 1U, 0, 104, 105);
-  Add(0, 5U, "151", "200", 1U, 0, 102, 103);
-  Add(0, 6U, "100", "150", 1U, 0, 100, 101);
-  Add(0, 7U, "100", "100", 1U, 0, 99, 100);
-  vstorage_->LevelFiles(0)[5]->being_compacted = true;
-  vstorage_->LevelFiles(1)[0]->being_compacted = true;
-  UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
-
-  std::unique_ptr<Compaction> compaction(level_compaction_picker.PickCompaction(
-      cf_name_, mutable_cf_options_, mutable_db_options_, vstorage_.get(),
-      &log_buffer_, 107));
-  ASSERT_TRUE(compaction.get() != nullptr);
-  ASSERT_EQ(1U, compaction->num_input_levels());
-  ASSERT_EQ(4U, compaction->num_input_files(0));
-  ASSERT_EQ(CompactionReason::kLevelL0FilesNum,
-            compaction->compaction_reason());
-  ASSERT_EQ(0, compaction->output_level());
-}
 
 #ifndef ROCKSDB_LITE
 TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, UniversalMarkedCompactionFullOverlap) {
@@ -2916,9 +2886,23 @@ TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, UniversalMarkedCompactionFullOverlap) {
   // should fail
   NewVersionStorage(5, kCompactionStyleUniversal);
 
-  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 500, 550);
-  Add(0, 2U, "201", "250", 2 * kFileSize, 0, 401, 450);
-  Add(0, 4U, "260", "300", 4 * kFileSize, 0, 260, 300);
+  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 500, 550, /*compensated_file_size*/ 0,
+      /*marked_for_compact*/ false, /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 3);
+  Add(0, 2U, "201", "250", 2 * kFileSize, 0, 401, 450,
+      /*compensated_file_size*/ 0, /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 2);
+  Add(0, 4U, "260", "300", 4 * kFileSize, 0, 260, 300,
+      /*compensated_file_size*/ 0, /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 1);
   Add(3, 5U, "010", "080", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 200, 251);
   Add(4, 3U, "301", "350", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 101, 150);
   Add(4, 6U, "501", "750", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 101, 150);
@@ -2940,7 +2924,11 @@ TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, UniversalMarkedCompactionFullOverlap) {
 
   AddVersionStorage();
   // Simulate a flush and mark the file for compaction
-  Add(0, 7U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 551, 600, 0, true);
+  Add(0, 7U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 551, 600, 0, true,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 4);
   UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
 
   std::unique_ptr<Compaction> compaction2(
@@ -2962,7 +2950,11 @@ TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, UniversalMarkedCompactionFullOverlap2) {
   NewVersionStorage(5, kCompactionStyleUniversal);
 
   // Mark file number 4 for compaction
-  Add(0, 4U, "260", "300", 4 * kFileSize, 0, 260, 300, 0, true);
+  Add(0, 4U, "260", "300", 4 * kFileSize, 0, 260, 300, 0, true,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 1);
   Add(3, 5U, "240", "290", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 201, 250);
   Add(4, 3U, "301", "350", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 101, 150);
   Add(4, 6U, "501", "750", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 101, 150);
@@ -2983,8 +2975,17 @@ TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, UniversalMarkedCompactionFullOverlap2) {
   ASSERT_EQ(1U, compaction->num_input_files(1));
 
   AddVersionStorage();
-  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 500, 550);
-  Add(0, 2U, "201", "250", 2 * kFileSize, 0, 401, 450);
+  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 500, 550, /*compensated_file_size*/ 0,
+      /*marked_for_compact*/ false, /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 3);
+  Add(0, 2U, "201", "250", 2 * kFileSize, 0, 401, 450,
+      /*compensated_file_size*/ 0, /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 2);
   UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
 
   std::unique_ptr<Compaction> compaction2(
@@ -3150,10 +3151,29 @@ TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, UniversalMarkedL0Overlap2) {
   NewVersionStorage(1, kCompactionStyleUniversal);
 
   // Mark file number 5 for compaction
-  Add(0, 4U, "260", "300", 1 * kFileSize, 0, 260, 300);
-  Add(0, 5U, "240", "290", 2 * kFileSize, 0, 201, 250, 0, true);
-  Add(0, 3U, "301", "350", 4 * kFileSize, 0, 101, 150);
-  Add(0, 6U, "501", "750", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 50, 100);
+  Add(0, 4U, "260", "300", 1 * kFileSize, 0, 260, 300,
+      /*compensated_file_size*/ 0, /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 4);
+  Add(0, 5U, "240", "290", 2 * kFileSize, 0, 201, 250, 0, true,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 3);
+  Add(0, 3U, "301", "350", 4 * kFileSize, 0, 101, 150,
+      /*compensated_file_size*/ 0, /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 2);
+  Add(0, 6U, "501", "750", 8 * kFileSize, 0, 50, 100,
+      /*compensated_file_size*/ 0, /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 1);
   UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
 
   std::unique_ptr<Compaction> compaction(
@@ -3173,8 +3193,18 @@ TEST_F(CompactionPickerTest, UniversalMarkedL0Overlap2) {
   ASSERT_TRUE(file_map_[6].first->being_compacted);
 
   AddVersionStorage();
-  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 500, 550);
-  Add(0, 2U, "201", "250", kFileSize, 0, 401, 450);
+  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", kFileSize, 0, 500, 550, /*compensated_file_size*/ 0,
+      /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 6);
+  Add(0, 2U, "201", "250", kFileSize, 0, 401, 450, /*compensated_file_size*/ 0,
+      /*marked_for_compact*/ false,
+      /* temperature*/ Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /*oldest_ancestor_time*/ kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
+      /*ts_of_smallest*/ Slice(), /*ts_of_largest*/ Slice(),
+      /*epoch_number*/ 5);
   UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
 
   std::unique_ptr<Compaction> compaction2(
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.cc
index 376e4f60f..3ef4e70b3 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.cc
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ bool UniversalCompactionPicker::NeedsCompaction(
 Compaction* UniversalCompactionPicker::PickCompaction(
     const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
-    LogBuffer* log_buffer, SequenceNumber /* earliest_memtable_seqno */) {
+    LogBuffer* log_buffer) {
   UniversalCompactionBuilder builder(ioptions_, icmp_, cf_name,
                                      mutable_cf_options, mutable_db_options,
                                      vstorage, this, log_buffer);
@@ -400,6 +400,7 @@ Compaction* UniversalCompactionBuilder::PickCompaction() {
   if (!vstorage_->FilesMarkedForPeriodicCompaction().empty()) {
     // Always need to do a full compaction for periodic compaction.
     c = PickPeriodicCompaction();
+    TEST_SYNC_POINT_CALLBACK("PostPickPeriodicCompaction", c);
   }
 
   // Check for size amplification.
@@ -408,6 +409,7 @@ Compaction* UniversalCompactionBuilder::PickCompaction() {
           static_cast<size_t>(
               mutable_cf_options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger)) {
     if ((c = PickCompactionToReduceSizeAmp()) != nullptr) {
+      TEST_SYNC_POINT("PickCompactionToReduceSizeAmpReturnNonnullptr");
       ROCKS_LOG_BUFFER(log_buffer_, "[%s] Universal: compacting for size amp\n",
                        cf_name_.c_str());
     } else {
@@ -417,6 +419,7 @@ Compaction* UniversalCompactionBuilder::PickCompaction() {
           mutable_cf_options_.compaction_options_universal.size_ratio;
 
       if ((c = PickCompactionToReduceSortedRuns(ratio, UINT_MAX)) != nullptr) {
+        TEST_SYNC_POINT("PickCompactionToReduceSortedRunsReturnNonnullptr");
         ROCKS_LOG_BUFFER(log_buffer_,
                          "[%s] Universal: compacting for size ratio\n",
                          cf_name_.c_str());
@@ -457,6 +460,7 @@ Compaction* UniversalCompactionBuilder::PickCompaction() {
 
   if (c == nullptr) {
     if ((c = PickDeleteTriggeredCompaction()) != nullptr) {
+      TEST_SYNC_POINT("PickDeleteTriggeredCompactionReturnNonnullptr");
       ROCKS_LOG_BUFFER(log_buffer_,
                        "[%s] Universal: delete triggered compaction\n",
                        cf_name_.c_str());
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.h b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.h
index 5f897cc9b..558733195 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.h
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_picker_universal.h
@@ -18,11 +18,11 @@ class UniversalCompactionPicker : public CompactionPicker {
   UniversalCompactionPicker(const ImmutableOptions& ioptions,
                             const InternalKeyComparator* icmp)
       : CompactionPicker(ioptions, icmp) {}
-  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(
-      const std::string& cf_name, const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
-      const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options, VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
-      LogBuffer* log_buffer,
-      SequenceNumber earliest_memtable_seqno = kMaxSequenceNumber) override;
+  virtual Compaction* PickCompaction(const std::string& cf_name,
+                                     const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
+                                     const MutableDBOptions& mutable_db_options,
+                                     VersionStorageInfo* vstorage,
+                                     LogBuffer* log_buffer) override;
   virtual int MaxOutputLevel() const override { return NumberLevels() - 1; }
 
   virtual bool NeedsCompaction(
diff --git a/db/compaction/compaction_service_job.cc b/db/compaction/compaction_service_job.cc
index 1d2e99d99..1f6c0b710 100644
--- a/db/compaction/compaction_service_job.cc
+++ b/db/compaction/compaction_service_job.cc
@@ -190,6 +190,7 @@ CompactionJob::ProcessKeyValueCompactionWithCompactionService(
     meta.largest.DecodeFrom(file.largest_internal_key);
     meta.oldest_ancester_time = file.oldest_ancester_time;
     meta.file_creation_time = file.file_creation_time;
+    meta.epoch_number = file.epoch_number;
     meta.marked_for_compaction = file.marked_for_compaction;
     meta.unique_id = file.unique_id;
 
@@ -333,8 +334,9 @@ Status CompactionServiceCompactionJob::Run() {
         MakeTableFileName(meta.fd.GetNumber()), meta.fd.smallest_seqno,
         meta.fd.largest_seqno, meta.smallest.Encode().ToString(),
         meta.largest.Encode().ToString(), meta.oldest_ancester_time,
-        meta.file_creation_time, output_file.validator.GetHash(),
-        meta.marked_for_compaction, meta.unique_id);
+        meta.file_creation_time, meta.epoch_number,
+        output_file.validator.GetHash(), meta.marked_for_compaction,
+        meta.unique_id);
   }
   InternalStats::CompactionStatsFull compaction_stats;
   sub_compact->AggregateCompactionStats(compaction_stats);
@@ -489,6 +491,10 @@ static std::unordered_map<std::string, OptionTypeInfo>
          {offsetof(struct CompactionServiceOutputFile, file_creation_time),
           OptionType::kUInt64T, OptionVerificationType::kNormal,
           OptionTypeFlags::kNone}},
+        {"epoch_number",
+         {offsetof(struct CompactionServiceOutputFile, epoch_number),
+          OptionType::kUInt64T, OptionVerificationType::kNormal,
+          OptionTypeFlags::kNone}},
         {"paranoid_hash",
          {offsetof(struct CompactionServiceOutputFile, paranoid_hash),
           OptionType::kUInt64T, OptionVerificationType::kNormal,
diff --git a/db/db_compaction_test.cc b/db/db_compaction_test.cc
index ba9c50b9a..ed9a5a7ae 100644
--- a/db/db_compaction_test.cc
+++ b/db/db_compaction_test.cc
@@ -9,8 +9,10 @@
 
 #include <tuple>
 
+#include "compaction/compaction_picker_universal.h"
 #include "db/blob/blob_index.h"
 #include "db/db_test_util.h"
+#include "db/dbformat.h"
 #include "env/mock_env.h"
 #include "port/port.h"
 #include "port/stack_trace.h"
@@ -6271,170 +6273,653 @@ void IngestOneKeyValue(DBImpl* db, const std::string& key,
   ASSERT_OK(db->IngestExternalFile({info.file_path}, ingest_opt));
 }
 
-TEST_P(DBCompactionTestWithParam,
-       FlushAfterIntraL0CompactionCheckConsistencyFail) {
-  Options options = CurrentOptions();
-  options.force_consistency_checks = true;
-  options.compression = kNoCompression;
-  options.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger = 5;
-  options.max_background_compactions = 2;
-  options.max_subcompactions = max_subcompactions_;
-  DestroyAndReopen(options);
+class DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption : public DBCompactionTest {
+ public:
+  DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption() : DBCompactionTest() {}
+  void SetupOptions(const CompactionStyle compaciton_style,
+                    const std::string& compaction_path_to_test = "") {
+    options_ = CurrentOptions();
+    options_.create_if_missing = true;
+    options_.compression = kNoCompression;
+
+    options_.force_consistency_checks = true;
+    options_.compaction_style = compaciton_style;
+
+    if (compaciton_style == CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleLevel) {
+      options_.num_levels = 7;
+      // Level compaction's PickIntraL0Compaction() impl detail requires
+      // `options.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger` to be
+      // at least 2 files less than the actual number of level 0 files
+      // (i.e, 7 by design in this test)
+      options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger = 5;
+      options_.max_background_compactions = 2;
+      options_.write_buffer_size = 2 << 20;
+      options_.max_write_buffer_number = 6;
+    } else if (compaciton_style == CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal) {
+      // TODO: expand test coverage to num_lvels > 1 for universal compacion,
+      // which requires careful unit test design to compact to level 0 despite
+      // num_levels > 1
+      options_.num_levels = 1;
+      options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger = 5;
+
+      CompactionOptionsUniversal universal_options;
+      if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickCompactionToReduceSizeAmp") {
+        universal_options.max_size_amplification_percent = 50;
+      } else if (compaction_path_to_test ==
+                 "PickCompactionToReduceSortedRuns") {
+        universal_options.max_size_amplification_percent = 400;
+      } else if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickDeleteTriggeredCompaction") {
+        universal_options.max_size_amplification_percent = 400;
+        universal_options.min_merge_width = 6;
+      }
+      options_.compaction_options_universal = universal_options;
+    } else if (compaciton_style == CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleFIFO) {
+      options_.max_open_files = -1;
+      options_.num_levels = 1;
+      options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger = 3;
+
+      CompactionOptionsFIFO fifo_options;
+      if (compaction_path_to_test == "FindIntraL0Compaction" ||
+          compaction_path_to_test == "CompactRange") {
+        fifo_options.allow_compaction = true;
+        fifo_options.age_for_warm = 0;
+      } else if (compaction_path_to_test == "CompactFile") {
+        fifo_options.allow_compaction = false;
+        fifo_options.age_for_warm = 0;
+      }
+      options_.compaction_options_fifo = fifo_options;
+    }
 
-  const size_t kValueSize = 1 << 20;
-  Random rnd(301);
-  std::atomic<int> pick_intra_l0_count(0);
-  std::string value(rnd.RandomString(kValueSize));
+    if (compaction_path_to_test == "CompactFile" ||
+        compaction_path_to_test == "CompactRange") {
+      options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+    } else {
+      options_.disable_auto_compactions = false;
+    }
+  }
 
-  // The L0->L1 must be picked before we begin ingesting files to trigger
-  // intra-L0 compaction, and must not finish until after an intra-L0
-  // compaction has been picked.
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->LoadDependency(
-      {{"LevelCompactionPicker::PickCompaction:Return",
-        "DBCompactionTestWithParam::"
-        "FlushAfterIntraL0CompactionCheckConsistencyFail:L0ToL1Ready"},
-       {"LevelCompactionPicker::PickCompactionBySize:0",
-        "CompactionJob::Run():Start"}});
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
-      "FindIntraL0Compaction",
-      [&](void* /*arg*/) { pick_intra_l0_count.fetch_add(1); });
+  void Destroy(const Options& options) {
+    if (snapshot_) {
+      assert(db_);
+      db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snapshot_);
+      snapshot_ = nullptr;
+    }
+    DBTestBase::Destroy(options);
+  }
 
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->EnableProcessing();
+  void Reopen(const Options& options) {
+    DBTestBase::Reopen(options);
+    if (options.compaction_style != CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleLevel) {
+      // To force assigning the global seqno to ingested file
+      // for our test purpose.
+      assert(snapshot_ == nullptr);
+      snapshot_ = db_->GetSnapshot();
+    }
+  }
 
-  // prevents trivial move
-  for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
-    ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i), ""));  // prevents trivial move
+  void DestroyAndReopen(Options& options) {
+    Destroy(options);
+    Reopen(options);
   }
-  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
-  Compact("", Key(99));
-  ASSERT_EQ(0, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
 
-  // Flush 5 L0 sst.
-  for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
-    ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i + 1), value));
-    ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  void PauseCompactionThread() {
+    sleeping_task_.reset(new test::SleepingBackgroundTask());
+    env_->SetBackgroundThreads(1, Env::LOW);
+    env_->Schedule(&test::SleepingBackgroundTask::DoSleepTask,
+                   sleeping_task_.get(), Env::Priority::LOW);
+    sleeping_task_->WaitUntilSleeping();
   }
-  ASSERT_EQ(5, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
 
-  // Put one key, to make smallest log sequence number in this memtable is less
-  // than sst which would be ingested in next step.
-  ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(0), "a"));
+  void ResumeCompactionThread() {
+    if (sleeping_task_) {
+      sleeping_task_->WakeUp();
+      sleeping_task_->WaitUntilDone();
+    }
+  }
 
-  ASSERT_EQ(5, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
-  TEST_SYNC_POINT(
-      "DBCompactionTestWithParam::"
-      "FlushAfterIntraL0CompactionCheckConsistencyFail:L0ToL1Ready");
+  void AddFilesMarkedForPeriodicCompaction(const size_t num_files) {
+    assert(options_.compaction_style ==
+           CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal);
+    VersionSet* const versions = dbfull()->GetVersionSet();
+    assert(versions);
+    ColumnFamilyData* const cfd = versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault();
+    assert(cfd);
+    Version* const current = cfd->current();
+    assert(current);
 
-  // Ingest 5 L0 sst. And this files would trigger PickIntraL0Compaction.
-  for (int i = 5; i < 10; i++) {
-    ASSERT_EQ(i, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
-    IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), Key(i), value, options);
+    VersionStorageInfo* const storage_info = current->storage_info();
+    assert(storage_info);
+
+    const std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files = storage_info->LevelFiles(0);
+    assert(level0_files.size() == num_files);
+
+    for (FileMetaData* f : level0_files) {
+      storage_info->TEST_AddFileMarkedForPeriodicCompaction(0, f);
+    }
   }
 
-  // Put one key, to make biggest log sequence number in this memtable is bigger
-  // than sst which would be ingested in next step.
-  ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(2), "b"));
-  ASSERT_OK(dbfull()->TEST_WaitForCompact());
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->DisableProcessing();
-  std::vector<std::vector<FileMetaData>> level_to_files;
-  dbfull()->TEST_GetFilesMetaData(dbfull()->DefaultColumnFamily(),
-                                  &level_to_files);
-  ASSERT_GT(level_to_files[0].size(), 0);
-  ASSERT_GT(pick_intra_l0_count.load(), 0);
+  void AddFilesMarkedForCompaction(const size_t num_files) {
+    assert(options_.compaction_style ==
+           CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal);
+    VersionSet* const versions = dbfull()->GetVersionSet();
+    assert(versions);
+    ColumnFamilyData* const cfd = versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault();
+    assert(cfd);
+    Version* const current = cfd->current();
+    assert(current);
 
-  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
-}
+    VersionStorageInfo* const storage_info = current->storage_info();
+    assert(storage_info);
 
-TEST_P(DBCompactionTestWithParam,
-       IntraL0CompactionAfterFlushCheckConsistencyFail) {
-  Options options = CurrentOptions();
-  options.force_consistency_checks = true;
-  options.compression = kNoCompression;
-  options.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger = 5;
-  options.max_background_compactions = 2;
-  options.max_subcompactions = max_subcompactions_;
-  options.write_buffer_size = 2 << 20;
-  options.max_write_buffer_number = 6;
-  DestroyAndReopen(options);
+    const std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files = storage_info->LevelFiles(0);
+    assert(level0_files.size() == num_files);
 
-  const size_t kValueSize = 1 << 20;
-  Random rnd(301);
-  std::string value(rnd.RandomString(kValueSize));
-  std::string value2(rnd.RandomString(kValueSize));
-  std::string bigvalue = value + value;
+    for (FileMetaData* f : level0_files) {
+      storage_info->TEST_AddFileMarkedForCompaction(0, f);
+    }
+  }
 
-  // prevents trivial move
+  void SetupSyncPoints(const std::string& compaction_path_to_test) {
+    compaction_path_sync_point_called_.store(false);
+    if (compaction_path_to_test == "FindIntraL0Compaction" &&
+        options_.compaction_style == CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleLevel) {
+      ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
+          "PostPickFileToCompact", [&](void* arg) {
+            bool* picked_file_to_compact = (bool*)arg;
+            // To trigger intra-L0 compaction specifically,
+            // we mock PickFileToCompact()'s result to be false
+            *picked_file_to_compact = false;
+          });
+      ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
+          "FindIntraL0Compaction", [&](void* /*arg*/) {
+            compaction_path_sync_point_called_.store(true);
+          });
+
+    } else if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickPeriodicCompaction") {
+      assert(options_.compaction_style ==
+             CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal);
+      ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
+          "PostPickPeriodicCompaction", [&](void* compaction_arg) {
+            Compaction* compaction = (Compaction*)compaction_arg;
+            if (compaction != nullptr) {
+              compaction_path_sync_point_called_.store(true);
+            }
+          });
+    } else if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickCompactionToReduceSizeAmp") {
+      assert(options_.compaction_style ==
+             CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal);
+      ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
+          "PickCompactionToReduceSizeAmpReturnNonnullptr", [&](void* /*arg*/) {
+            compaction_path_sync_point_called_.store(true);
+          });
+    } else if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickCompactionToReduceSortedRuns") {
+      assert(options_.compaction_style ==
+             CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal);
+      ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
+          "PickCompactionToReduceSortedRunsReturnNonnullptr",
+          [&](void* /*arg*/) {
+            compaction_path_sync_point_called_.store(true);
+          });
+    } else if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickDeleteTriggeredCompaction") {
+      assert(options_.compaction_style ==
+             CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal);
+      ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
+          "PickDeleteTriggeredCompactionReturnNonnullptr", [&](void* /*arg*/) {
+            compaction_path_sync_point_called_.store(true);
+          });
+    } else if ((compaction_path_to_test == "FindIntraL0Compaction" ||
+                compaction_path_to_test == "CompactRange") &&
+               options_.compaction_style ==
+                   CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleFIFO) {
+      ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
+          "FindIntraL0Compaction", [&](void* /*arg*/) {
+            compaction_path_sync_point_called_.store(true);
+          });
+    }
+
+    ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->EnableProcessing();
+  }
+
+  bool SyncPointsCalled() { return compaction_path_sync_point_called_.load(); }
+
+  void DisableSyncPoints() {
+    ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->ClearAllCallBacks();
+    ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->DisableProcessing();
+  }
+
+  // Return the largest seqno of the latest L0 file based on file number
+  SequenceNumber GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper() {
+    VersionSet* const versions = dbfull()->GetVersionSet();
+    assert(versions);
+    ColumnFamilyData* const cfd = versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault();
+    assert(cfd);
+    Version* const current = cfd->current();
+    assert(current);
+    VersionStorageInfo* const storage_info = current->storage_info();
+    assert(storage_info);
+    const std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files = storage_info->LevelFiles(0);
+    assert(level0_files.size() >= 1);
+
+    uint64_t latest_file_num = 0;
+    uint64_t latest_file_largest_seqno = 0;
+    for (FileMetaData* f : level0_files) {
+      if (f->fd.GetNumber() > latest_file_num) {
+        latest_file_num = f->fd.GetNumber();
+        latest_file_largest_seqno = f->fd.largest_seqno;
+      }
+    }
+
+    return latest_file_largest_seqno;
+  }
+
+ protected:
+  Options options_;
+
+ private:
+  const Snapshot* snapshot_ = nullptr;
+  std::atomic<bool> compaction_path_sync_point_called_;
+  std::shared_ptr<test::SleepingBackgroundTask> sleeping_task_;
+};
+
+TEST_F(DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption,
+       FlushAfterIntraL0LevelCompactionWithIngestedFile) {
+  SetupOptions(CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleLevel, "");
+  DestroyAndReopen(options_);
+  // Prevents trivial move
   for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {
-    ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i), ""));  // prevents trivial move
+    ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i), ""));  // Prevents trivial move
   }
   ASSERT_OK(Flush());
   Compact("", Key(99));
   ASSERT_EQ(0, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
 
-  std::atomic<int> pick_intra_l0_count(0);
-  // The L0->L1 must be picked before we begin ingesting files to trigger
-  // intra-L0 compaction, and must not finish until after an intra-L0
-  // compaction has been picked.
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->LoadDependency(
-      {{"LevelCompactionPicker::PickCompaction:Return",
-        "DBCompactionTestWithParam::"
-        "IntraL0CompactionAfterFlushCheckConsistencyFail:L0ToL1Ready"},
-       {"LevelCompactionPicker::PickCompactionBySize:0",
-        "CompactionJob::Run():Start"}});
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->SetCallBack(
-      "FindIntraL0Compaction",
-      [&](void* /*arg*/) { pick_intra_l0_count.fetch_add(1); });
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->EnableProcessing();
-  // Make 6 L0 sst.
+  // To get accurate NumTableFilesAtLevel(0) when the number reaches
+  // options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger
+  PauseCompactionThread();
+
+  // To create below LSM tree
+  // (key:value@n indicates key-value pair has seqno "n", L0 is sorted):
+  //
+  // memtable: m1[              5:new@12 ..      1:new@8,    0:new@7]
+  //       L0: s6[6:new@13], s5[5:old@6] ...  s1[1:old@2],s0[0:old@1]
+  //
+  // (1) Make 6 L0 sst (i.e, s0 - s5)
   for (int i = 0; i < 6; ++i) {
     if (i % 2 == 0) {
-      IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), Key(i), value, options);
+      IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), Key(i), "old", options_);
     } else {
-      ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i), value));
+      ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i), "old"));
       ASSERT_OK(Flush());
     }
   }
-
   ASSERT_EQ(6, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
 
-  // Stop run flush job
-  env_->SetBackgroundThreads(1, Env::HIGH);
-  test::SleepingBackgroundTask sleeping_tasks;
-  env_->Schedule(&test::SleepingBackgroundTask::DoSleepTask, &sleeping_tasks,
-                 Env::Priority::HIGH);
-  sleeping_tasks.WaitUntilSleeping();
-
-  // Put many keys to make memtable request to flush
+  // (2) Create m1
   for (int i = 0; i < 6; ++i) {
-    ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i), bigvalue));
+    ASSERT_OK(Put(Key(i), "new"));
   }
-
   ASSERT_EQ(6, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
-  TEST_SYNC_POINT(
-      "DBCompactionTestWithParam::"
-      "IntraL0CompactionAfterFlushCheckConsistencyFail:L0ToL1Ready");
-  // ingest file to trigger IntraL0Compaction
-  for (int i = 6; i < 10; ++i) {
+
+  // (3) Ingest file (i.e, s6) to trigger IntraL0Compaction()
+  for (int i = 6; i < 7; ++i) {
     ASSERT_EQ(i, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
-    IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), Key(i), value2, options);
+    IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), Key(i), "new", options_);
   }
 
-  // Wake up flush job
-  sleeping_tasks.WakeUp();
-  sleeping_tasks.WaitUntilDone();
+  SetupSyncPoints("FindIntraL0Compaction");
+  ResumeCompactionThread();
+
   ASSERT_OK(dbfull()->TEST_WaitForCompact());
-  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::SyncPoint::GetInstance()->DisableProcessing();
 
-  uint64_t error_count = 0;
-  db_->GetIntProperty("rocksdb.background-errors", &error_count);
-  ASSERT_EQ(error_count, 0);
-  ASSERT_GT(pick_intra_l0_count.load(), 0);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(SyncPointsCalled());
+  DisableSyncPoints();
+
+  // After compaction, we have LSM tree:
+  //
+  // memtable: m1[          5:new@12 ..     1:new@8,  0:new@7]
+  //       L0: s7[6:new@13, 5:old@6 ..                0:old@1]
+  ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+  SequenceNumber compact_output_file_largest_seqno =
+      GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  // After flush, we have LSM tree:
+  //
+  // L0: s8[5:new@12 .. 0:new@7],s7[6:new@13, 5:old@5 .. 0:old@1]
+  ASSERT_EQ(2, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+  SequenceNumber flushed_file_largest_seqno =
+      GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+  // To verify there isn't any file misorder leading to returning a old value
+  // of Key(0) - Key(5) , which is caused by flushed table s8 has a
+  // smaller largest seqno than the compaction output file s7's largest seqno
+  // while the flushed table has the newer version of the values than the
+  // compaction output file's.
+  ASSERT_TRUE(flushed_file_largest_seqno < compact_output_file_largest_seqno);
   for (int i = 0; i < 6; ++i) {
-    ASSERT_EQ(bigvalue, Get(Key(i)));
+    ASSERT_EQ("new", Get(Key(i)));
+  }
+  for (int i = 6; i < 7; ++i) {
+    ASSERT_EQ("new", Get(Key(i)));
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption,
+       FlushAfterIntraL0UniversalCompactionWithIngestedFile) {
+  for (const std::string compaction_path_to_test :
+       {"PickPeriodicCompaction", "PickCompactionToReduceSizeAmp",
+        "PickCompactionToReduceSortedRuns", "PickDeleteTriggeredCompaction"}) {
+    SetupOptions(CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal,
+                 compaction_path_to_test);
+    DestroyAndReopen(options_);
+
+    // To get accurate NumTableFilesAtLevel(0) when the number reaches
+    // options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger
+    PauseCompactionThread();
+
+    // To create below LSM tree
+    // (key:value@n indicates key-value pair has seqno "n", L0 is sorted):
+    //
+    // memtable: m1 [                  k2:new@8, k1:new@7]
+    // L0: s4[k9:dummy@10], s3[k8:dummy@9],
+    //     s2[k7:old@6, k6:old@5].. s0[k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+    //
+    // (1) Create 3 existing SST file (i.e, s0 - s2)
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k3", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+    ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k4", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k5", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+    ASSERT_EQ(2, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k6", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k7", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+    ASSERT_EQ(3, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+    // (2) Create m1. Noted that it contains a overlaped key with s0
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "new"));  // overlapped key
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k2", "new"));
+
+    // (3) Ingest two SST files s3, s4
+    IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k8", "dummy", options_);
+    IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k9", "dummy", options_);
+    // Up to now, L0 contains s0 - s4
+    ASSERT_EQ(5, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+    if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickPeriodicCompaction") {
+      AddFilesMarkedForPeriodicCompaction(5);
+    } else if (compaction_path_to_test == "PickDeleteTriggeredCompaction") {
+      AddFilesMarkedForCompaction(5);
+    }
+
+    SetupSyncPoints(compaction_path_to_test);
+    ResumeCompactionThread();
+
+    ASSERT_OK(dbfull()->TEST_WaitForCompact());
+
+    ASSERT_TRUE(SyncPointsCalled())
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    DisableSyncPoints();
+
+    // After compaction, we have LSM tree:
+    //
+    // memtable: m1[                                     k2:new@8, k1:new@7]
+    //       L0: s5[k9:dummy@10, k8@dummy@9, k7:old@6 .. k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+    ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0))
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    SequenceNumber compact_output_file_largest_seqno =
+        GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush()) << "failed for compaction path to test: "
+                       << compaction_path_to_test;
+    // After flush, we have LSM tree:
+    //
+    // L0: s6[k2:new@8, k1:new@7],
+    //     s5[k9:dummy@10, k8@dummy@9, k7:old@6 .. k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+    ASSERT_EQ(2, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0))
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    SequenceNumber flushed_file_largest_seqno =
+        GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+    // To verify there isn't any file misorder leading to returning a old
+    // value of "k1" , which is caused by flushed table s6 has a
+    // smaller largest seqno than the compaction output file s5's largest seqno
+    // while the flushed table has the newer version of the value
+    // than the compaction output file's.
+    ASSERT_TRUE(flushed_file_largest_seqno < compact_output_file_largest_seqno)
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    EXPECT_EQ(Get("k1"), "new")
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+  }
+
+  Destroy(options_);
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption,
+       FlushAfterIntraL0FIFOCompactionWithIngestedFile) {
+  for (const std::string compaction_path_to_test : {"FindIntraL0Compaction"}) {
+    SetupOptions(CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleFIFO,
+                 compaction_path_to_test);
+    DestroyAndReopen(options_);
+
+    // To create below LSM tree
+    // (key:value@n indicates key-value pair has seqno "n", L0 is sorted):
+    //
+    // memtable: m1 [                         k2:new@4, k1:new@3]
+    // L0: s2[k5:dummy@6], s1[k4:dummy@5], s0[k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+    //
+    // (1) Create an existing SST file s0
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k3", "old"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+    ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+    // (2) Create memtable m1. Noted that it contains a overlaped key with s0
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "new"));  // overlapped key
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("k2", "new"));
+
+    // To get accurate NumTableFilesAtLevel(0) when the number reaches
+    // options_.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger
+    PauseCompactionThread();
+
+    // (3) Ingest two SST files s1, s2
+    IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k4", "dummy", options_);
+    IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k5", "dummy", options_);
+    // Up to now, L0 contains s0, s1, s2
+    ASSERT_EQ(3, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+    SetupSyncPoints(compaction_path_to_test);
+    ResumeCompactionThread();
+
+    ASSERT_OK(dbfull()->TEST_WaitForCompact());
+
+    ASSERT_TRUE(SyncPointsCalled())
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    DisableSyncPoints();
+    // After compaction, we have LSM tree:
+    //
+    // memtable: m1 [                 k2:new@4, k1:new@3]
+    // L0: s3[k5:dummy@6, k4:dummy@5, k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+    ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0))
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    SequenceNumber compact_output_file_largest_seqno =
+        GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush()) << "failed for compaction path to test: "
+                       << compaction_path_to_test;
+    // After flush, we have LSM tree:
+    //
+    // L0: s4[k2:new@4, k1:new@3], s3[k5:dummy@6, k4:dummy@5, k3:old@2,
+    // k1:old@1]
+    ASSERT_EQ(2, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0))
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    SequenceNumber flushed_file_largest_seqno =
+        GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+    // To verify there isn't any file misorder leading to returning a old
+    // value of "k1" , which is caused by flushed table s4 has a
+    // smaller largest seqno than the compaction output file s3's largest seqno
+    // while the flushed table has the newer version of the value
+    // than the compaction output file's.
+    ASSERT_TRUE(flushed_file_largest_seqno < compact_output_file_largest_seqno)
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+    EXPECT_EQ(Get("k1"), "new")
+        << "failed for compaction path to test: " << compaction_path_to_test;
+  }
+
+  Destroy(options_);
+}
+
+class DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruptionWithParam
+    : public DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption,
+      public testing::WithParamInterface<CompactionStyle> {
+ public:
+  DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruptionWithParam()
+      : DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruption() {}
+};
+
+// TODO: add `CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleLevel` to testing parameter,
+// which requires careful unit test
+// design for ingesting file to L0 and CompactRange()/CompactFile() to L0
+INSTANTIATE_TEST_CASE_P(
+    DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruptionWithParam,
+    DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruptionWithParam,
+    ::testing::Values(CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleUniversal,
+                      CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleFIFO));
+
+TEST_P(DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruptionWithParam,
+       FlushAfterIntraL0CompactFileWithIngestedFile) {
+  SetupOptions(GetParam(), "CompactFile");
+  DestroyAndReopen(options_);
+
+  // To create below LSM tree
+  // (key:value@n indicates key-value pair has seqno "n", L0 is sorted):
+  //
+  // memtable: m1 [                         k2:new@4, k1:new@3]
+  // L0: s2[k5:dummy@6], s1[k4:dummy@5], s0[k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+  //
+  // (1) Create an existing SST file s0
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "old"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k3", "old"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+  // (2) Create memtable m1. Noted that it contains a overlaped key with s0
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "new"));  // overlapped key
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k2", "new"));
+
+  // (3) Ingest two SST files s1, s2
+  IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k4", "dummy", options_);
+  IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k5", "dummy", options_);
+  // Up to now, L0 contains s0, s1, s2
+  ASSERT_EQ(3, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+  ColumnFamilyMetaData cf_meta_data;
+  db_->GetColumnFamilyMetaData(&cf_meta_data);
+  ASSERT_EQ(cf_meta_data.levels[0].files.size(), 3);
+  std::vector<std::string> input_files;
+  for (const auto& file : cf_meta_data.levels[0].files) {
+    input_files.push_back(file.name);
   }
-  for (int i = 6; i < 10; ++i) {
-    ASSERT_EQ(value2, Get(Key(i)));
+  ASSERT_EQ(input_files.size(), 3);
+
+  Status s = db_->CompactFiles(CompactionOptions(), input_files, 0);
+  // After compaction, we have LSM tree:
+  //
+  // memtable: m1 [                 k2:new@4, k1:new@3]
+  // L0: s3[k5:dummy@6, k4:dummy@5, k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+  ASSERT_OK(s);
+  ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+  SequenceNumber compact_output_file_largest_seqno =
+      GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  // After flush, we have LSM tree:
+  //
+  // L0: s4[k2:new@4, k1:new@3], s3[k5:dummy@6, k4:dummy@5, k3:old@2,
+  // k1:old@1]
+  ASSERT_EQ(2, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+  SequenceNumber flushed_file_largest_seqno =
+      GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+  // To verify there isn't any file misorder leading to returning a old value
+  // of "1" , which is caused by flushed table s4 has a smaller
+  // largest seqno than the compaction output file s3's largest seqno while the
+  // flushed table has the newer version of the value than the
+  // compaction output file's.
+  ASSERT_TRUE(flushed_file_largest_seqno < compact_output_file_largest_seqno);
+  EXPECT_EQ(Get("k1"), "new");
+
+  Destroy(options_);
+}
+
+TEST_P(DBCompactionTestL0FilesMisorderCorruptionWithParam,
+       FlushAfterIntraL0CompactRangeWithIngestedFile) {
+  SetupOptions(GetParam(), "CompactRange");
+  DestroyAndReopen(options_);
+
+  // To create below LSM tree
+  // (key:value@n indicates key-value pair has seqno "n", L0 is sorted):
+  //
+  // memtable: m1 [                         k2:new@4, k1:new@3]
+  // L0: s2[k5:dummy@6], s1[k4:dummy@5], s0[k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+  //
+  // (1) Create an existing SST file s0
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "old"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k3", "old"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+  // (2) Create memtable m1. Noted that it contains a overlaped key with s0
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "new"));  // overlapped key
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k2", "new"));
+
+  // (3) Ingest two SST files s1, s2
+  IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k4", "dummy", options_);
+  IngestOneKeyValue(dbfull(), "k5", "dummy", options_);
+  // Up to now, L0 contains s0, s1, s2
+  ASSERT_EQ(3, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+
+  if (options_.compaction_style == CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleFIFO) {
+    SetupSyncPoints("CompactRange");
+  }
+  // `start` and `end` is carefully chosen so that compact range:
+  // (1) doesn't overlap with memtable therefore the memtable won't be flushed
+  // (2) should target at compacting s0 with s1 and s2
+  Slice start("k3"), end("k5");
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), &start, &end));
+  // After compaction, we have LSM tree:
+  //
+  // memtable: m1 [                 k2:new@4, k1:new@3]
+  // L0: s3[k5:dummy@6, k4:dummy@5, k3:old@2, k1:old@1]
+  if (options_.compaction_style == CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleFIFO) {
+    ASSERT_TRUE(SyncPointsCalled());
+    DisableSyncPoints();
   }
+  ASSERT_EQ(1, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+  SequenceNumber compact_output_file_largest_seqno =
+      GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  // After flush, we have LSM tree:
+  //
+  // L0: s4[k2:new@4, k1:new@3], s3[k5:dummy@6, k4:dummy@5, k3:old@2,
+  // k1:old@1]
+  ASSERT_EQ(2, NumTableFilesAtLevel(0));
+  SequenceNumber flushed_file_largest_seqno =
+      GetLatestL0FileLargestSeqnoHelper();
+
+  // To verify there isn't any file misorder leading to returning a old value
+  // of "k1" , which is caused by flushed table s4 has a smaller
+  // largest seqno than the compaction output file s3's largest seqno while the
+  // flushed table has the newer version of the value than the
+  // compaction output file's.
+  ASSERT_TRUE(flushed_file_largest_seqno < compact_output_file_largest_seqno);
+  EXPECT_EQ(Get("k1"), "new");
+
+  Destroy(options_);
 }
 
 TEST_P(DBCompactionTestWithBottommostParam, SequenceKeysManualCompaction) {
diff --git a/db/db_impl/db_impl.cc b/db/db_impl/db_impl.cc
index a431111d4..657d2870f 100644
--- a/db/db_impl/db_impl.cc
+++ b/db/db_impl/db_impl.cc
@@ -5318,6 +5318,7 @@ Status DBImpl::IngestExternalFiles(
     // Run ingestion jobs.
     if (status.ok()) {
       for (size_t i = 0; i != num_cfs; ++i) {
+        mutex_.AssertHeld();
         status = ingestion_jobs[i].Run();
         if (!status.ok()) {
           break;
@@ -5522,6 +5523,7 @@ Status DBImpl::CreateColumnFamilyWithImport(
 
       num_running_ingest_file_++;
       assert(!cfd->IsDropped());
+      mutex_.AssertHeld();
       status = import_job.Run();
 
       // Install job edit [Mutex will be unlocked here]
diff --git a/db/db_impl/db_impl_compaction_flush.cc b/db/db_impl/db_impl_compaction_flush.cc
index a605fac87..31e2d07ce 100644
--- a/db/db_impl/db_impl_compaction_flush.cc
+++ b/db/db_impl/db_impl_compaction_flush.cc
@@ -1687,14 +1687,15 @@ Status DBImpl::ReFitLevel(ColumnFamilyData* cfd, int level, int target_level) {
 
     VersionEdit edit;
     edit.SetColumnFamily(cfd->GetID());
+
     for (const auto& f : vstorage->LevelFiles(level)) {
       edit.DeleteFile(level, f->fd.GetNumber());
       edit.AddFile(
           to_level, f->fd.GetNumber(), f->fd.GetPathId(), f->fd.GetFileSize(),
           f->smallest, f->largest, f->fd.smallest_seqno, f->fd.largest_seqno,
           f->marked_for_compaction, f->temperature, f->oldest_blob_file_number,
-          f->oldest_ancester_time, f->file_creation_time, f->file_checksum,
-          f->file_checksum_func_name, f->unique_id);
+          f->oldest_ancester_time, f->file_creation_time, f->epoch_number,
+          f->file_checksum, f->file_checksum_func_name, f->unique_id);
     }
     ROCKS_LOG_DEBUG(immutable_db_options_.info_log,
                     "[%s] Apply version edit:\n%s", cfd->GetName().c_str(),
@@ -3334,8 +3335,8 @@ Status DBImpl::BackgroundCompaction(bool* made_progress,
             f->fd.GetFileSize(), f->smallest, f->largest, f->fd.smallest_seqno,
             f->fd.largest_seqno, f->marked_for_compaction, f->temperature,
             f->oldest_blob_file_number, f->oldest_ancester_time,
-            f->file_creation_time, f->file_checksum, f->file_checksum_func_name,
-            f->unique_id);
+            f->file_creation_time, f->epoch_number, f->file_checksum,
+            f->file_checksum_func_name, f->unique_id);
 
         ROCKS_LOG_BUFFER(
             log_buffer,
diff --git a/db/db_impl/db_impl_experimental.cc b/db/db_impl/db_impl_experimental.cc
index c1b1e4137..035fdbd41 100644
--- a/db/db_impl/db_impl_experimental.cc
+++ b/db/db_impl/db_impl_experimental.cc
@@ -136,7 +136,7 @@ Status DBImpl::PromoteL0(ColumnFamilyHandle* column_family, int target_level) {
                    f->fd.smallest_seqno, f->fd.largest_seqno,
                    f->marked_for_compaction, f->temperature,
                    f->oldest_blob_file_number, f->oldest_ancester_time,
-                   f->file_creation_time, f->file_checksum,
+                   f->file_creation_time, f->epoch_number, f->file_checksum,
                    f->file_checksum_func_name, f->unique_id);
     }
 
diff --git a/db/db_impl/db_impl_open.cc b/db/db_impl/db_impl_open.cc
index 40ffa2e85..f626df9ed 100644
--- a/db/db_impl/db_impl_open.cc
+++ b/db/db_impl/db_impl_open.cc
@@ -1515,7 +1515,7 @@ Status DBImpl::WriteLevel0TableForRecovery(int job_id, ColumnFamilyData* cfd,
         .PermitUncheckedError();  // ignore error
     const uint64_t current_time = static_cast<uint64_t>(_current_time);
     meta.oldest_ancester_time = current_time;
-
+    meta.epoch_number = cfd->NewEpochNumber();
     {
       auto write_hint = cfd->CalculateSSTWriteHint(0);
       mutex_.Unlock();
@@ -1583,13 +1583,13 @@ Status DBImpl::WriteLevel0TableForRecovery(int job_id, ColumnFamilyData* cfd,
   constexpr int level = 0;
 
   if (s.ok() && has_output) {
-    edit->AddFile(level, meta.fd.GetNumber(), meta.fd.GetPathId(),
-                  meta.fd.GetFileSize(), meta.smallest, meta.largest,
-                  meta.fd.smallest_seqno, meta.fd.largest_seqno,
-                  meta.marked_for_compaction, meta.temperature,
-                  meta.oldest_blob_file_number, meta.oldest_ancester_time,
-                  meta.file_creation_time, meta.file_checksum,
-                  meta.file_checksum_func_name, meta.unique_id);
+    edit->AddFile(
+        level, meta.fd.GetNumber(), meta.fd.GetPathId(), meta.fd.GetFileSize(),
+        meta.smallest, meta.largest, meta.fd.smallest_seqno,
+        meta.fd.largest_seqno, meta.marked_for_compaction, meta.temperature,
+        meta.oldest_blob_file_number, meta.oldest_ancester_time,
+        meta.file_creation_time, meta.epoch_number, meta.file_checksum,
+        meta.file_checksum_func_name, meta.unique_id);
 
     for (const auto& blob : blob_file_additions) {
       edit->AddBlobFile(blob);
diff --git a/db/db_test.cc b/db/db_test.cc
index 9575248b4..1688745c1 100644
--- a/db/db_test.cc
+++ b/db/db_test.cc
@@ -1203,6 +1203,8 @@ void CheckColumnFamilyMeta(
                 file_meta_from_files.file_creation_time);
       ASSERT_GE(file_meta_from_cf.file_creation_time, start_time);
       ASSERT_LE(file_meta_from_cf.file_creation_time, end_time);
+      ASSERT_EQ(file_meta_from_cf.epoch_number,
+                file_meta_from_files.epoch_number);
       ASSERT_GE(file_meta_from_cf.oldest_ancester_time, start_time);
       ASSERT_LE(file_meta_from_cf.oldest_ancester_time, end_time);
       // More from FileStorageInfo
@@ -1253,6 +1255,7 @@ void CheckLiveFilesMeta(
     ASSERT_EQ(meta.largestkey, expected_meta.largest.user_key().ToString());
     ASSERT_EQ(meta.oldest_blob_file_number,
               expected_meta.oldest_blob_file_number);
+    ASSERT_EQ(meta.epoch_number, expected_meta.epoch_number);
 
     // More from FileStorageInfo
     ASSERT_EQ(meta.file_type, kTableFile);
diff --git a/db/db_test2.cc b/db/db_test2.cc
index 779b8bf13..b4f1664f4 100644
--- a/db/db_test2.cc
+++ b/db/db_test2.cc
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 
 #include "db/db_test_util.h"
 #include "db/read_callback.h"
+#include "db/version_edit.h"
 #include "options/options_helper.h"
 #include "port/port.h"
 #include "port/stack_trace.h"
@@ -33,6 +34,18 @@ namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE {
 class DBTest2 : public DBTestBase {
  public:
   DBTest2() : DBTestBase("db_test2", /*env_do_fsync=*/true) {}
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> GetLevelFileMetadatas(int level, int cf = 0) {
+    VersionSet* const versions = dbfull()->GetVersionSet();
+    assert(versions);
+    ColumnFamilyData* const cfd =
+        versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetColumnFamily(cf);
+    assert(cfd);
+    Version* const current = cfd->current();
+    assert(current);
+    VersionStorageInfo* const storage_info = current->storage_info();
+    assert(storage_info);
+    return storage_info->LevelFiles(level);
+  }
 };
 
 #ifndef ROCKSDB_LITE
@@ -7325,6 +7338,218 @@ TEST_F(DBTest2, PointInTimeRecoveryWithSyncFailureInCFCreation) {
   ReopenWithColumnFamilies({"default", "test1", "test2"}, options);
 }
 
+#ifndef ROCKSDB_LITE
+TEST_F(DBTest2, SortL0FilesByEpochNumber) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.num_levels = 1;
+  options.compaction_style = kCompactionStyleUniversal;
+  DestroyAndReopen(options);
+
+  // Set up L0 files to be sorted by their epoch_number
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("key1", "seq1"));
+
+  SstFileWriter sst_file_writer{EnvOptions(), options};
+  std::string external_file1 = dbname_ + "/test_files1.sst";
+  std::string external_file2 = dbname_ + "/test_files2.sst";
+  ASSERT_OK(sst_file_writer.Open(external_file1));
+  ASSERT_OK(sst_file_writer.Put("key2", "seq0"));
+  ASSERT_OK(sst_file_writer.Finish());
+  ASSERT_OK(sst_file_writer.Open(external_file2));
+  ASSERT_OK(sst_file_writer.Put("key3", "seq0"));
+  ASSERT_OK(sst_file_writer.Finish());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("key4", "seq2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+
+  auto* handle = db_->DefaultColumnFamily();
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->IngestExternalFile(handle, {external_file1, external_file2},
+                                    IngestExternalFileOptions()));
+
+  // To verify L0 files are sorted by epoch_number in descending order
+  // instead of largest_seqno
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 3);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[0]->epoch_number, 3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[0]->fd.largest_seqno, 0);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[0]->num_entries, 1);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key3"));
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[1]->epoch_number, 2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[1]->fd.largest_seqno, 0);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[1]->num_entries, 1);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[1]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key2"));
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[2]->epoch_number, 1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[2]->fd.largest_seqno, 2);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[2]->num_entries, 2);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[2]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key4"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[2]->smallest.user_key() == Slice("key1"));
+
+  // To verify compacted file is assigned with the minimum epoch_number
+  // among input files'
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  level0_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 1);
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[0]->epoch_number, 1);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[0]->num_entries, 4);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key4"));
+  ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[0]->smallest.user_key() == Slice("key1"));
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest2, SameEpochNumberAfterCompactRangeChangeLevel) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  options.num_levels = 7;
+  options.compaction_style = CompactionStyle::kCompactionStyleLevel;
+  options.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  DestroyAndReopen(options);
+
+  // Set up the file in L1 to be moved to L0 in later step of CompactRange()
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("key1", "seq1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  MoveFilesToLevel(1, 0);
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 0);
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> level1_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(1 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level1_files.size(), 1);
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> level2_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(2 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level2_files.size(), 0);
+
+  ASSERT_EQ(level1_files[0]->epoch_number, 1);
+
+  // To verify CompactRange() moving file to L0 still keeps the file's
+  // epoch_number
+  CompactRangeOptions croptions;
+  croptions.change_level = true;
+  croptions.target_level = 0;
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(croptions, nullptr, nullptr));
+  level0_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+  level1_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(1 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 1);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level1_files.size(), 0);
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[0]->epoch_number, 1);
+
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[0]->num_entries, 1);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key1"));
+}
+
+TEST_F(DBTest2, RecoverEpochNumber) {
+  for (bool allow_ingest_behind : {true, false}) {
+    Options options = CurrentOptions();
+    options.allow_ingest_behind = allow_ingest_behind;
+    options.num_levels = 7;
+    options.compaction_style = kCompactionStyleLevel;
+    options.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+    DestroyAndReopen(options);
+    CreateAndReopenWithCF({"cf1"}, options);
+    VersionSet* versions = dbfull()->GetVersionSet();
+    assert(versions);
+    const ColumnFamilyData* default_cf =
+        versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault();
+    const ColumnFamilyData* cf1 =
+        versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetColumnFamily("cf1");
+
+    // Set up files in default CF to recover in later step
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("key1", "epoch1"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+    MoveFilesToLevel(1 /* level*/, 0 /* cf*/);
+    ASSERT_OK(Put("key2", "epoch2"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+
+    std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files =
+        GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[0]->epoch_number,
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 2 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 2);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[0]->num_entries, 1);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key2"));
+
+    std::vector<FileMetaData*> level1_files =
+        GetLevelFileMetadatas(1 /* level*/);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level1_files.size(), 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level1_files[0]->epoch_number,
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 1 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level1_files[0]->num_entries, 1);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(level1_files[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key1"));
+
+    // Set up files in cf1 to recover in later step
+    ASSERT_OK(Put(1 /* cf */, "cf1_key1", "epoch1"));
+    ASSERT_OK(Flush(1 /* cf */));
+
+    std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files_cf1 =
+        GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/, 1 /* cf*/);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files_cf1.size(), 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files_cf1[0]->epoch_number,
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 1 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files_cf1[0]->num_entries, 1);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files_cf1[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("cf1_key1"));
+
+    ASSERT_EQ(default_cf->GetNextEpochNumber(),
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 3 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 3);
+    ASSERT_EQ(cf1->GetNextEpochNumber(),
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 2 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 2);
+
+    // To verify epoch_number of files of different levels/CFs are
+    // persisted and recovered correctly
+    ReopenWithColumnFamilies({"default", "cf1"}, options);
+    versions = dbfull()->GetVersionSet();
+    assert(versions);
+    default_cf = versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault();
+    cf1 = versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetColumnFamily("cf1");
+
+    level0_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 1);
+    EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[0]->epoch_number,
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 2 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 2);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[0]->num_entries, 1);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key2"));
+
+    level1_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(1 /* level*/);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level1_files.size(), 1);
+    EXPECT_EQ(level1_files[0]->epoch_number,
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 1 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level1_files[0]->num_entries, 1);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(level1_files[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("key1"));
+
+    level0_files_cf1 = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/, 1 /* cf*/);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files_cf1.size(), 1);
+    EXPECT_EQ(level0_files_cf1[0]->epoch_number,
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 1 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 1);
+    ASSERT_EQ(level0_files_cf1[0]->num_entries, 1);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(level0_files_cf1[0]->largest.user_key() == Slice("cf1_key1"));
+
+    // To verify next epoch number is recovered correctly
+    EXPECT_EQ(default_cf->GetNextEpochNumber(),
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 3 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 3);
+    EXPECT_EQ(cf1->GetNextEpochNumber(),
+              allow_ingest_behind
+                  ? 2 + kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+                  : 2);
+  }
+}
+
+#endif  // ROCKSDB_LITE
+
 TEST_F(DBTest2, RenameDirectory) {
   Options options = CurrentOptions();
   DestroyAndReopen(options);
diff --git a/db/experimental.cc b/db/experimental.cc
index d838ebde5..cb6286b1f 100644
--- a/db/experimental.cc
+++ b/db/experimental.cc
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ Status UpdateManifestForFilesState(
                   lf->smallest, lf->largest, lf->fd.smallest_seqno,
                   lf->fd.largest_seqno, lf->marked_for_compaction, temp,
                   lf->oldest_blob_file_number, lf->oldest_ancester_time,
-                  lf->file_creation_time, lf->file_checksum,
+                  lf->file_creation_time, lf->epoch_number, lf->file_checksum,
                   lf->file_checksum_func_name, lf->unique_id);
             }
           }
diff --git a/db/external_sst_file_ingestion_job.cc b/db/external_sst_file_ingestion_job.cc
index ba1277eab..dfb967268 100644
--- a/db/external_sst_file_ingestion_job.cc
+++ b/db/external_sst_file_ingestion_job.cc
@@ -469,8 +469,11 @@ Status ExternalSstFileIngestionJob::Run() {
         f.fd.GetNumber(), f.fd.GetPathId(), f.fd.GetFileSize(),
         f.smallest_internal_key, f.largest_internal_key, f.assigned_seqno,
         f.assigned_seqno, false, f.file_temperature, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-        oldest_ancester_time, current_time, f.file_checksum,
-        f.file_checksum_func_name, f.unique_id);
+        oldest_ancester_time, current_time,
+        ingestion_options_.ingest_behind
+            ? kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind
+            : cfd_->NewEpochNumber(),
+        f.file_checksum, f.file_checksum_func_name, f.unique_id);
     f_metadata.temperature = f.file_temperature;
     edit_.AddFile(f.picked_level, f_metadata);
   }
diff --git a/db/flush_job.cc b/db/flush_job.cc
index 645e42f44..c63ccec3e 100644
--- a/db/flush_job.cc
+++ b/db/flush_job.cc
@@ -23,6 +23,7 @@
 #include "db/memtable_list.h"
 #include "db/merge_context.h"
 #include "db/range_tombstone_fragmenter.h"
+#include "db/version_edit.h"
 #include "db/version_set.h"
 #include "file/file_util.h"
 #include "file/filename.h"
@@ -199,6 +200,7 @@ void FlushJob::PickMemTable() {
 
   // path 0 for level 0 file.
   meta_.fd = FileDescriptor(versions_->NewFileNumber(), 0, 0);
+  meta_.epoch_number = cfd_->NewEpochNumber();
 
   base_ = cfd_->current();
   base_->Ref();  // it is likely that we do not need this reference
@@ -999,8 +1001,9 @@ Status FlushJob::WriteLevel0Table() {
                    meta_.fd.smallest_seqno, meta_.fd.largest_seqno,
                    meta_.marked_for_compaction, meta_.temperature,
                    meta_.oldest_blob_file_number, meta_.oldest_ancester_time,
-                   meta_.file_creation_time, meta_.file_checksum,
-                   meta_.file_checksum_func_name, meta_.unique_id);
+                   meta_.file_creation_time, meta_.epoch_number,
+                   meta_.file_checksum, meta_.file_checksum_func_name,
+                   meta_.unique_id);
 
     edit_->SetBlobFileAdditions(std::move(blob_file_additions));
   }
diff --git a/db/import_column_family_job.cc b/db/import_column_family_job.cc
index ae342cc0b..c59ef11ab 100644
--- a/db/import_column_family_job.cc
+++ b/db/import_column_family_job.cc
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 //  COPYING file in the root directory) and Apache 2.0 License
 //  (found in the LICENSE.Apache file in the root directory).
 
+#include "db/version_builder.h"
 #ifndef ROCKSDB_LITE
 
 #include "db/import_column_family_job.h"
@@ -119,38 +120,46 @@ Status ImportColumnFamilyJob::Run() {
         static_cast<uint64_t>(temp_current_time);
   }
 
-  VersionBuilder version_builder(
+  // Recover files' epoch number using dummy VersionStorageInfo
+  VersionBuilder dummy_version_builder(
       cfd_->current()->version_set()->file_options(), cfd_->ioptions(),
       cfd_->table_cache(), cfd_->current()->storage_info(),
       cfd_->current()->version_set(),
       cfd_->GetFileMetadataCacheReservationManager());
-  VersionStorageInfo vstorage(
+  VersionStorageInfo dummy_vstorage(
       &cfd_->internal_comparator(), cfd_->user_comparator(),
       cfd_->NumberLevels(), cfd_->ioptions()->compaction_style,
-      nullptr /* src_vstorage */, cfd_->ioptions()->force_consistency_checks);
+      nullptr /* src_vstorage */, cfd_->ioptions()->force_consistency_checks,
+      EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing);
   Status s;
   for (size_t i = 0; s.ok() && i < files_to_import_.size(); ++i) {
     const auto& f = files_to_import_[i];
     const auto& file_metadata = metadata_[i];
 
-    VersionEdit version_edit;
-    version_edit.AddFile(
+    VersionEdit dummy_version_edit;
+    dummy_version_edit.AddFile(
         file_metadata.level, f.fd.GetNumber(), f.fd.GetPathId(),
         f.fd.GetFileSize(), f.smallest_internal_key, f.largest_internal_key,
         file_metadata.smallest_seqno, file_metadata.largest_seqno, false,
         file_metadata.temperature, kInvalidBlobFileNumber, oldest_ancester_time,
-        current_time, kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-        f.unique_id);
-    s = version_builder.Apply(&version_edit);
+        current_time, file_metadata.epoch_number, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+        kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, f.unique_id);
+    s = dummy_version_builder.Apply(&dummy_version_edit);
   }
   if (s.ok()) {
-    s = version_builder.SaveTo(&vstorage);
+    s = dummy_version_builder.SaveTo(&dummy_vstorage);
   }
+  if (s.ok()) {
+    dummy_vstorage.RecoverEpochNumbers(cfd_);
+  }
+
+  // Record changes from this CF import in VersionEdit, including files with
+  // recovered epoch numbers
   if (s.ok()) {
     edit_.SetColumnFamily(cfd_->GetID());
 
-    for (int level = 0; level < vstorage.num_levels(); level++) {
-      for (FileMetaData* file_meta : vstorage.LevelFiles(level)) {
+    for (int level = 0; level < dummy_vstorage.num_levels(); level++) {
+      for (FileMetaData* file_meta : dummy_vstorage.LevelFiles(level)) {
         edit_.AddFile(level, *file_meta);
         // If incoming sequence number is higher, update local sequence number.
         if (file_meta->fd.largest_seqno > versions_->LastSequence()) {
@@ -161,8 +170,10 @@ Status ImportColumnFamilyJob::Run() {
       }
     }
   }
-  for (int level = 0; level < vstorage.num_levels(); level++) {
-    for (FileMetaData* file_meta : vstorage.LevelFiles(level)) {
+
+  // Release resources occupied by the dummy VersionStorageInfo
+  for (int level = 0; level < dummy_vstorage.num_levels(); level++) {
+    for (FileMetaData* file_meta : dummy_vstorage.LevelFiles(level)) {
       file_meta->refs--;
       if (file_meta->refs <= 0) {
         delete file_meta;
@@ -299,7 +310,6 @@ Status ImportColumnFamilyJob::GetIngestedFileInfo(
 
   return status;
 }
-
 }  // namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE
 
 #endif  // !ROCKSDB_LITE
diff --git a/db/repair.cc b/db/repair.cc
index 1829a79f2..ae26f9c6f 100644
--- a/db/repair.cc
+++ b/db/repair.cc
@@ -59,6 +59,7 @@
 //   Store per-table metadata (smallest, largest, largest-seq#, ...)
 //   in the table's meta section to speed up ScanTable.
 
+#include "db/version_builder.h"
 #ifndef ROCKSDB_LITE
 
 #include <cinttypes>
@@ -640,38 +641,79 @@ class Repairer {
     for (const auto& cf_id_and_tables : cf_id_to_tables) {
       auto* cfd =
           vset_.GetColumnFamilySet()->GetColumnFamily(cf_id_and_tables.first);
-      VersionEdit edit;
-      edit.SetComparatorName(cfd->user_comparator()->Name());
-      edit.SetLogNumber(0);
-      edit.SetNextFile(next_file_number_);
-      edit.SetColumnFamily(cfd->GetID());
 
-      // TODO(opt): separate out into multiple levels
+      // Recover files' epoch number using dummy VersionStorageInfo
+      VersionBuilder dummy_version_builder(
+          cfd->current()->version_set()->file_options(), cfd->ioptions(),
+          cfd->table_cache(), cfd->current()->storage_info(),
+          cfd->current()->version_set(),
+          cfd->GetFileMetadataCacheReservationManager());
+      VersionStorageInfo dummy_vstorage(
+          &cfd->internal_comparator(), cfd->user_comparator(),
+          cfd->NumberLevels(), cfd->ioptions()->compaction_style,
+          nullptr /* src_vstorage */, cfd->ioptions()->force_consistency_checks,
+          EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing);
+      Status s;
+      VersionEdit dummy_edit;
       for (const auto* table : cf_id_and_tables.second) {
-        edit.AddFile(
+        // TODO(opt): separate out into multiple levels
+        dummy_edit.AddFile(
             0, table->meta.fd.GetNumber(), table->meta.fd.GetPathId(),
             table->meta.fd.GetFileSize(), table->meta.smallest,
             table->meta.largest, table->meta.fd.smallest_seqno,
             table->meta.fd.largest_seqno, table->meta.marked_for_compaction,
             table->meta.temperature, table->meta.oldest_blob_file_number,
             table->meta.oldest_ancester_time, table->meta.file_creation_time,
-            table->meta.file_checksum, table->meta.file_checksum_func_name,
-            table->meta.unique_id);
+            table->meta.epoch_number, table->meta.file_checksum,
+            table->meta.file_checksum_func_name, table->meta.unique_id);
       }
-      assert(next_file_number_ > 0);
-      vset_.MarkFileNumberUsed(next_file_number_ - 1);
-      mutex_.Lock();
-      std::unique_ptr<FSDirectory> db_dir;
-      Status status = env_->GetFileSystem()->NewDirectory(dbname_, IOOptions(),
-                                                          &db_dir, nullptr);
-      if (status.ok()) {
-        status = vset_.LogAndApply(cfd, *cfd->GetLatestMutableCFOptions(),
-                                   &edit, &mutex_, db_dir.get(),
-                                   false /* new_descriptor_log */);
+      s = dummy_version_builder.Apply(&dummy_edit);
+      if (s.ok()) {
+        s = dummy_version_builder.SaveTo(&dummy_vstorage);
       }
-      mutex_.Unlock();
-      if (!status.ok()) {
-        return status;
+      if (s.ok()) {
+        dummy_vstorage.RecoverEpochNumbers(cfd);
+      }
+      if (s.ok()) {
+        // Record changes from this repair in VersionEdit, including files with
+        // recovered epoch numbers
+        VersionEdit edit;
+        edit.SetComparatorName(cfd->user_comparator()->Name());
+        edit.SetLogNumber(0);
+        edit.SetNextFile(next_file_number_);
+        edit.SetColumnFamily(cfd->GetID());
+        for (int level = 0; level < dummy_vstorage.num_levels(); ++level) {
+          for (FileMetaData* file_meta : dummy_vstorage.LevelFiles(level)) {
+            edit.AddFile(level, *file_meta);
+          }
+        }
+
+        // Release resources occupied by the dummy VersionStorageInfo
+        for (int level = 0; level < dummy_vstorage.num_levels(); ++level) {
+          for (FileMetaData* file_meta : dummy_vstorage.LevelFiles(level)) {
+            file_meta->refs--;
+            if (file_meta->refs <= 0) {
+              delete file_meta;
+            }
+          }
+        }
+
+        // Persist record of changes
+        assert(next_file_number_ > 0);
+        vset_.MarkFileNumberUsed(next_file_number_ - 1);
+        mutex_.Lock();
+        std::unique_ptr<FSDirectory> db_dir;
+        s = env_->GetFileSystem()->NewDirectory(dbname_, IOOptions(), &db_dir,
+                                                nullptr);
+        if (s.ok()) {
+          s = vset_.LogAndApply(cfd, *cfd->GetLatestMutableCFOptions(), &edit,
+                                &mutex_, db_dir.get(),
+                                false /* new_descriptor_log */);
+        }
+        mutex_.Unlock();
+      }
+      if (!s.ok()) {
+        return s;
       }
     }
     return Status::OK();
diff --git a/db/repair_test.cc b/db/repair_test.cc
index 644a9270d..f80f2b722 100644
--- a/db/repair_test.cc
+++ b/db/repair_test.cc
@@ -62,8 +62,62 @@ class RepairTest : public DBTestBase {
     ASSERT_GT(verify_passed, 0);
     SyncPoint::GetInstance()->DisableProcessing();
   }
+
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> GetLevelFileMetadatas(int level, int cf = 0) {
+    VersionSet* const versions = dbfull()->GetVersionSet();
+    assert(versions);
+    ColumnFamilyData* const cfd =
+        versions->GetColumnFamilySet()->GetColumnFamily(cf);
+    assert(cfd);
+    Version* const current = cfd->current();
+    assert(current);
+    VersionStorageInfo* const storage_info = current->storage_info();
+    assert(storage_info);
+    return storage_info->LevelFiles(level);
+  }
 };
 
+TEST_F(RepairTest, SortRepairedDBL0ByEpochNumber) {
+  Options options = CurrentOptions();
+  DestroyAndReopen(options);
+
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "oldest"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "older"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+  MoveFilesToLevel(1);
+
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "old"));
+  ASSERT_OK(Flush());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(Put("k1", "new"));
+
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> level0_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 1);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files[0]->epoch_number, 2);
+  std::vector<FileMetaData*> level1_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(1 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level1_files.size(), 1);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level1_files[0]->epoch_number, 1);
+
+  std::string manifest_path =
+      DescriptorFileName(dbname_, dbfull()->TEST_Current_Manifest_FileNo());
+  Close();
+  ASSERT_OK(env_->FileExists(manifest_path));
+  ASSERT_OK(env_->DeleteFile(manifest_path));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(RepairDB(dbname_, CurrentOptions()));
+  ReopenWithSstIdVerify();
+
+  EXPECT_EQ(Get("k1"), "new");
+
+  level0_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(0 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level0_files.size(), 3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[0]->epoch_number, 3);
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[1]->epoch_number, 2);
+  EXPECT_EQ(level0_files[2]->epoch_number, 1);
+  level1_files = GetLevelFileMetadatas(1 /* level*/);
+  ASSERT_EQ(level1_files.size(), 0);
+}
+
 TEST_F(RepairTest, LostManifest) {
   // Add a couple SST files, delete the manifest, and verify RepairDB() saves
   // the day.
diff --git a/db/version_builder.cc b/db/version_builder.cc
index 2c65dcf71..bff90b242 100644
--- a/db/version_builder.cc
+++ b/db/version_builder.cc
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@
 #include "db/dbformat.h"
 #include "db/internal_stats.h"
 #include "db/table_cache.h"
+#include "db/version_edit.h"
 #include "db/version_set.h"
 #include "port/port.h"
 #include "table/table_reader.h"
@@ -36,25 +37,22 @@
 namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE {
 
 class VersionBuilder::Rep {
-  class NewestFirstBySeqNo {
+  class NewestFirstByEpochNumber {
+   private:
+    inline static const NewestFirstBySeqNo seqno_cmp;
+
    public:
     bool operator()(const FileMetaData* lhs, const FileMetaData* rhs) const {
       assert(lhs);
       assert(rhs);
 
-      if (lhs->fd.largest_seqno != rhs->fd.largest_seqno) {
-        return lhs->fd.largest_seqno > rhs->fd.largest_seqno;
-      }
-
-      if (lhs->fd.smallest_seqno != rhs->fd.smallest_seqno) {
-        return lhs->fd.smallest_seqno > rhs->fd.smallest_seqno;
+      if (lhs->epoch_number != rhs->epoch_number) {
+        return lhs->epoch_number > rhs->epoch_number;
+      } else {
+        return seqno_cmp(lhs, rhs);
       }
-
-      // Break ties by file number
-      return lhs->fd.GetNumber() > rhs->fd.GetNumber();
     }
   };
-
   class BySmallestKey {
    public:
     explicit BySmallestKey(const InternalKeyComparator* cmp) : cmp_(cmp) {}
@@ -251,7 +249,8 @@ class VersionBuilder::Rep {
   std::unordered_map<uint64_t, int> table_file_levels_;
   // Current compact cursors that should be changed after the last compaction
   std::unordered_map<int, InternalKey> updated_compact_cursors_;
-  NewestFirstBySeqNo level_zero_cmp_;
+  NewestFirstByEpochNumber level_zero_cmp_by_epochno_;
+  NewestFirstBySeqNo level_zero_cmp_by_seqno_;
   BySmallestKey level_nonzero_cmp_;
 
   // Mutable metadata objects for all blob files affected by the series of
@@ -382,43 +381,60 @@ class VersionBuilder::Rep {
     ExpectedLinkedSsts expected_linked_ssts;
 
     if (num_levels_ > 0) {
+      const InternalKeyComparator* const icmp = vstorage->InternalComparator();
+      EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+          vstorage->GetEpochNumberRequirement();
+      assert(icmp);
       // Check L0
       {
-        auto l0_checker = [this](const FileMetaData* lhs,
-                                 const FileMetaData* rhs) {
+        auto l0_checker = [this, epoch_number_requirement, icmp](
+                              const FileMetaData* lhs,
+                              const FileMetaData* rhs) {
           assert(lhs);
           assert(rhs);
 
-          if (!level_zero_cmp_(lhs, rhs)) {
-            std::ostringstream oss;
-            oss << "L0 files are not sorted properly: files #"
-                << lhs->fd.GetNumber() << ", #" << rhs->fd.GetNumber();
-
-            return Status::Corruption("VersionBuilder", oss.str());
-          }
-
-          if (rhs->fd.smallest_seqno == rhs->fd.largest_seqno) {
-            // This is an external file that we ingested
-            const SequenceNumber external_file_seqno = rhs->fd.smallest_seqno;
-
-            if (!(external_file_seqno < lhs->fd.largest_seqno ||
-                  external_file_seqno == 0)) {
+          if (epoch_number_requirement ==
+              EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing) {
+            if (!level_zero_cmp_by_seqno_(lhs, rhs)) {
               std::ostringstream oss;
-              oss << "L0 file #" << lhs->fd.GetNumber() << " with seqno "
-                  << lhs->fd.smallest_seqno << ' ' << lhs->fd.largest_seqno
-                  << " vs. file #" << rhs->fd.GetNumber()
-                  << " with global_seqno " << external_file_seqno;
-
+              oss << "L0 files are not sorted properly: files #"
+                  << lhs->fd.GetNumber() << " with seqnos (largest, smallest) "
+                  << lhs->fd.largest_seqno << " , " << lhs->fd.smallest_seqno
+                  << ", #" << rhs->fd.GetNumber()
+                  << " with seqnos (largest, smallest) "
+                  << rhs->fd.largest_seqno << " , " << rhs->fd.smallest_seqno;
               return Status::Corruption("VersionBuilder", oss.str());
             }
-          } else if (lhs->fd.smallest_seqno <= rhs->fd.smallest_seqno) {
-            std::ostringstream oss;
-            oss << "L0 file #" << lhs->fd.GetNumber() << " with seqno "
-                << lhs->fd.smallest_seqno << ' ' << lhs->fd.largest_seqno
-                << " vs. file #" << rhs->fd.GetNumber() << " with seqno "
-                << rhs->fd.smallest_seqno << ' ' << rhs->fd.largest_seqno;
+          } else if (epoch_number_requirement ==
+                     EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent) {
+            if (lhs->epoch_number == rhs->epoch_number) {
+              bool range_overlapped =
+                  icmp->Compare(lhs->smallest, rhs->largest) <= 0 &&
+                  icmp->Compare(lhs->largest, rhs->smallest) >= 0;
+
+              if (range_overlapped) {
+                std::ostringstream oss;
+                oss << "L0 files of same epoch number but overlapping range #"
+                    << lhs->fd.GetNumber()
+                    << " , smallest key: " << lhs->smallest.DebugString(true)
+                    << " , largest key: " << lhs->largest.DebugString(true)
+                    << " , epoch number: " << lhs->epoch_number << " vs. file #"
+                    << rhs->fd.GetNumber()
+                    << " , smallest key: " << rhs->smallest.DebugString(true)
+                    << " , largest key: " << rhs->largest.DebugString(true)
+                    << " , epoch number: " << rhs->epoch_number;
+                return Status::Corruption("VersionBuilder", oss.str());
+              }
+            }
 
-            return Status::Corruption("VersionBuilder", oss.str());
+            if (!level_zero_cmp_by_epochno_(lhs, rhs)) {
+              std::ostringstream oss;
+              oss << "L0 files are not sorted properly: files #"
+                  << lhs->fd.GetNumber() << " with epoch number "
+                  << lhs->epoch_number << ", #" << rhs->fd.GetNumber()
+                  << " with epoch number " << rhs->epoch_number;
+              return Status::Corruption("VersionBuilder", oss.str());
+            }
           }
 
           return Status::OK();
@@ -433,8 +449,6 @@ class VersionBuilder::Rep {
       }
 
       // Check L1 and up
-      const InternalKeyComparator* const icmp = vstorage->InternalComparator();
-      assert(icmp);
 
       for (int level = 1; level < num_levels_; ++level) {
         auto checker = [this, level, icmp](const FileMetaData* lhs,
@@ -1156,6 +1170,25 @@ class VersionBuilder::Rep {
     }
   }
 
+  bool PromoteEpochNumberRequirementIfNeeded(
+      VersionStorageInfo* vstorage) const {
+    if (vstorage->HasMissingEpochNumber()) {
+      return false;
+    }
+
+    for (int level = 0; level < num_levels_; ++level) {
+      for (const auto& pair : levels_[level].added_files) {
+        const FileMetaData* f = pair.second;
+        if (f->epoch_number == kUnknownEpochNumber) {
+          return false;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    vstorage->SetEpochNumberRequirement(EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent);
+    return true;
+  }
+
   void SaveSSTFilesTo(VersionStorageInfo* vstorage) const {
     assert(vstorage);
 
@@ -1163,7 +1196,21 @@ class VersionBuilder::Rep {
       return;
     }
 
-    SaveSSTFilesTo(vstorage, /* level */ 0, level_zero_cmp_);
+    EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+        vstorage->GetEpochNumberRequirement();
+
+    if (epoch_number_requirement == EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing) {
+      bool promoted = PromoteEpochNumberRequirementIfNeeded(vstorage);
+      if (promoted) {
+        epoch_number_requirement = vstorage->GetEpochNumberRequirement();
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (epoch_number_requirement == EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing) {
+      SaveSSTFilesTo(vstorage, /* level */ 0, level_zero_cmp_by_seqno_);
+    } else {
+      SaveSSTFilesTo(vstorage, /* level */ 0, level_zero_cmp_by_epochno_);
+    }
 
     for (int level = 1; level < num_levels_; ++level) {
       SaveSSTFilesTo(vstorage, level, level_nonzero_cmp_);
diff --git a/db/version_builder.h b/db/version_builder.h
index 1c022832a..682d60524 100644
--- a/db/version_builder.h
+++ b/db/version_builder.h
@@ -11,7 +11,9 @@
 
 #include <memory>
 
+#include "db/version_edit.h"
 #include "rocksdb/file_system.h"
+#include "rocksdb/metadata.h"
 #include "rocksdb/slice_transform.h"
 
 namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE {
@@ -69,4 +71,22 @@ class BaseReferencedVersionBuilder {
   Version* version_;
 };
 
+class NewestFirstBySeqNo {
+ public:
+  bool operator()(const FileMetaData* lhs, const FileMetaData* rhs) const {
+    assert(lhs);
+    assert(rhs);
+
+    if (lhs->fd.largest_seqno != rhs->fd.largest_seqno) {
+      return lhs->fd.largest_seqno > rhs->fd.largest_seqno;
+    }
+
+    if (lhs->fd.smallest_seqno != rhs->fd.smallest_seqno) {
+      return lhs->fd.smallest_seqno > rhs->fd.smallest_seqno;
+    }
+
+    // Break ties by file number
+    return lhs->fd.GetNumber() > rhs->fd.GetNumber();
+  }
+};
 }  // namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE
diff --git a/db/version_builder_test.cc b/db/version_builder_test.cc
index ee5c3f2e3..ed276c65f 100644
--- a/db/version_builder_test.cc
+++ b/db/version_builder_test.cc
@@ -64,14 +64,15 @@ class VersionBuilderTest : public testing::Test {
            uint64_t num_entries = 0, uint64_t num_deletions = 0,
            bool sampled = false, SequenceNumber smallest_seqno = 0,
            SequenceNumber largest_seqno = 0,
-           uint64_t oldest_blob_file_number = kInvalidBlobFileNumber) {
+           uint64_t oldest_blob_file_number = kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+           uint64_t epoch_number = kUnknownEpochNumber) {
     assert(level < vstorage_.num_levels());
     FileMetaData* f = new FileMetaData(
         file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest, smallest_seq),
         GetInternalKey(largest, largest_seq), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
         /* marked_for_compact */ false, Temperature::kUnknown,
         oldest_blob_file_number, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-        kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+        kUnknownFileCreationTime, epoch_number, kUnknownFileChecksum,
         kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
     f->compensated_file_size = file_size;
     f->num_entries = num_entries;
@@ -98,7 +99,8 @@ class VersionBuilderTest : public testing::Test {
     vstorage_.AddBlobFile(std::move(meta));
   }
 
-  void AddDummyFile(uint64_t table_file_number, uint64_t blob_file_number) {
+  void AddDummyFile(uint64_t table_file_number, uint64_t blob_file_number,
+                    uint64_t epoch_number) {
     constexpr int level = 0;
     constexpr char smallest[] = "bar";
     constexpr char largest[] = "foo";
@@ -112,11 +114,11 @@ class VersionBuilderTest : public testing::Test {
 
     Add(level, table_file_number, smallest, largest, file_size, path_id,
         smallest_seq, largest_seq, num_entries, num_deletions, sampled,
-        smallest_seq, largest_seq, blob_file_number);
+        smallest_seq, largest_seq, blob_file_number, epoch_number);
   }
 
   void AddDummyFileToEdit(VersionEdit* edit, uint64_t table_file_number,
-                          uint64_t blob_file_number) {
+                          uint64_t blob_file_number, uint64_t epoch_number) {
     assert(edit);
 
     constexpr int level = 0;
@@ -132,7 +134,7 @@ class VersionBuilderTest : public testing::Test {
         level, table_file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest),
         GetInternalKey(largest), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
         marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown, blob_file_number,
-        kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+        kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, epoch_number,
         kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   }
 
@@ -157,7 +159,13 @@ void UnrefFilesInVersion(VersionStorageInfo* new_vstorage) {
 }
 
 TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveTo) {
-  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100U);
+  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100U, /*path_id*/ 0,
+      /*smallest_seq*/ 100, /*largest_seq*/ 100,
+      /*num_entries*/ 0, /*num_deletions*/ 0,
+      /*sampled*/ false, /*smallest_seqno*/ 0,
+      /*largest_seqno*/ 0,
+      /*oldest_blob_file_number*/ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      /*epoch_number*/ 1);
 
   Add(1, 66U, "150", "200", 100U);
   Add(1, 88U, "201", "300", 100U);
@@ -177,7 +185,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveTo) {
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 666, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("301"), GetInternalKey("350"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.DeleteFile(3, 27U);
 
@@ -204,8 +212,12 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveTo) {
 TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveToDynamic) {
   ioptions_.level_compaction_dynamic_level_bytes = true;
 
-  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100U, 0, 200U, 200U, 0, 0, false, 200U, 200U);
-  Add(0, 88U, "201", "300", 100U, 0, 100U, 100U, 0, 0, false, 100U, 100U);
+  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100U, 0, 200U, 200U, 0, 0, false, 200U, 200U,
+      /*oldest_blob_file_number*/ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      /*epoch_number*/ 2);
+  Add(0, 88U, "201", "300", 100U, 0, 100U, 100U, 0, 0, false, 100U, 100U,
+      /*oldest_blob_file_number*/ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      /*epoch_number*/ 1);
 
   Add(4, 6U, "150", "179", 100U);
   Add(4, 7U, "180", "220", 100U);
@@ -220,7 +232,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveToDynamic) {
   version_edit.AddFile(
       3, 666, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("301"), GetInternalKey("350"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.DeleteFile(0, 1U);
   version_edit.DeleteFile(0, 88U);
@@ -250,8 +262,12 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveToDynamic) {
 TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveToDynamic2) {
   ioptions_.level_compaction_dynamic_level_bytes = true;
 
-  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100U, 0, 200U, 200U, 0, 0, false, 200U, 200U);
-  Add(0, 88U, "201", "300", 100U, 0, 100U, 100U, 0, 0, false, 100U, 100U);
+  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100U, 0, 200U, 200U, 0, 0, false, 200U, 200U,
+      /*oldest_blob_file_number*/ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      /*epoch_number*/ 2);
+  Add(0, 88U, "201", "300", 100U, 0, 100U, 100U, 0, 0, false, 100U, 100U,
+      /*oldest_blob_file_number*/ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      /*epoch_number*/ 1);
 
   Add(4, 6U, "150", "179", 100U);
   Add(4, 7U, "180", "220", 100U);
@@ -266,7 +282,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyAndSaveToDynamic2) {
   version_edit.AddFile(
       4, 666, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("301"), GetInternalKey("350"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.DeleteFile(0, 1U);
   version_edit.DeleteFile(0, 88U);
@@ -302,27 +318,27 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyMultipleAndSaveTo) {
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 666, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("301"), GetInternalKey("350"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 676, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("401"), GetInternalKey("450"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 636, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("601"), GetInternalKey("650"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 616, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("501"), GetInternalKey("550"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 606, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("701"), GetInternalKey("750"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   EnvOptions env_options;
@@ -361,27 +377,27 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyDeleteAndSaveTo) {
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 666, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("301"), GetInternalKey("350"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 676, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("401"), GetInternalKey("450"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 636, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("601"), GetInternalKey("650"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 616, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("501"), GetInternalKey("550"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 606, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("701"), GetInternalKey("750"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   ASSERT_OK(version_builder.Apply(&version_edit));
 
@@ -389,14 +405,14 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyDeleteAndSaveTo) {
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 808, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("901"), GetInternalKey("950"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   version_edit2.DeleteFile(2, 616);
   version_edit2.DeleteFile(2, 636);
   version_edit.AddFile(
       2, 806, 0, 100U, GetInternalKey("801"), GetInternalKey("850"), 200, 200,
       false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   ASSERT_OK(version_builder.Apply(&version_edit2));
@@ -502,13 +518,13 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyFileDeletionAndAddition) {
 
   constexpr bool marked_for_compaction = false;
 
-  addition.AddFile(level, file_number, path_id, file_size,
-                   GetInternalKey(smallest, smallest_seq),
-                   GetInternalKey(largest, largest_seq), smallest_seqno,
-                   largest_seqno, marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown,
-                   kInvalidBlobFileNumber, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-                   kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
-                   kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+  addition.AddFile(
+      level, file_number, path_id, file_size,
+      GetInternalKey(smallest, smallest_seq),
+      GetInternalKey(largest, largest_seq), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
+      marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
+      kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   ASSERT_OK(builder.Apply(&addition));
 
@@ -556,7 +572,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyFileAdditionAlreadyInBase) {
       new_level, file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest),
       GetInternalKey(largest), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
       marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   const Status s = builder.Apply(&edit);
@@ -588,12 +604,12 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyFileAdditionAlreadyApplied) {
   constexpr SequenceNumber largest_seqno = 1000;
   constexpr bool marked_for_compaction = false;
 
-  edit.AddFile(level, file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest),
-               GetInternalKey(largest), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
-               marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown,
-               kInvalidBlobFileNumber, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
-               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+  edit.AddFile(
+      level, file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest),
+      GetInternalKey(largest), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
+      marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
+      kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   ASSERT_OK(builder.Apply(&edit));
 
@@ -605,7 +621,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyFileAdditionAlreadyApplied) {
       new_level, file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest),
       GetInternalKey(largest), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
       marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   const Status s = builder.Apply(&other_edit);
@@ -641,7 +657,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyFileAdditionAndDeletion) {
       level, file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest),
       GetInternalKey(largest), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
       marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
       kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   ASSERT_OK(builder.Apply(&addition));
@@ -691,7 +707,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyBlobFileAddition) {
 
   // Add dummy table file to ensure the blob file is referenced.
   constexpr uint64_t table_file_number = 1;
-  AddDummyFileToEdit(&edit, table_file_number, blob_file_number);
+  AddDummyFileToEdit(&edit, table_file_number, blob_file_number,
+                     1 /*epoch_number*/);
 
   ASSERT_OK(builder.Apply(&edit));
 
@@ -813,7 +830,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyBlobFileGarbageFileInBase) {
   ASSERT_NE(meta, nullptr);
 
   // Add dummy table file to ensure the blob file is referenced.
-  AddDummyFile(table_file_number, blob_file_number);
+  AddDummyFile(table_file_number, blob_file_number, 1 /*epoch_number*/);
 
   UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
 
@@ -892,7 +909,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, ApplyBlobFileGarbageFileAdditionApplied) {
 
   // Add dummy table file to ensure the blob file is referenced.
   constexpr uint64_t table_file_number = 1;
-  AddDummyFileToEdit(&addition, table_file_number, blob_file_number);
+  AddDummyFileToEdit(&addition, table_file_number, blob_file_number,
+                     1 /*epoch_number*/);
 
   ASSERT_OK(builder.Apply(&addition));
 
@@ -989,7 +1007,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, BlobFileGarbageOverflow) {
 
   // Add dummy table file to ensure the blob file is referenced.
   constexpr uint64_t table_file_number = 1;
-  AddDummyFileToEdit(&addition, table_file_number, blob_file_number);
+  AddDummyFileToEdit(&addition, table_file_number, blob_file_number,
+                     1 /*epoch_number*/);
 
   ASSERT_OK(builder.Apply(&addition));
 
@@ -1050,7 +1069,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, SaveBlobFilesTo) {
     const uint64_t table_file_number = 2 * i;
     const uint64_t blob_file_number = 2 * i + 1;
 
-    AddDummyFile(table_file_number, blob_file_number);
+    AddDummyFile(table_file_number, blob_file_number, i /*epoch_number*/);
   }
 
   UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
@@ -1171,7 +1190,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, SaveBlobFilesToConcurrentJobs) {
   constexpr uint64_t garbage_blob_count = 0;
   constexpr uint64_t garbage_blob_bytes = 0;
 
-  AddDummyFile(base_table_file_number, base_blob_file_number);
+  AddDummyFile(base_table_file_number, base_blob_file_number,
+               1 /*epoch_number*/);
   AddBlob(base_blob_file_number, base_total_blob_count, base_total_blob_bytes,
           checksum_method, checksum_value,
           BlobFileMetaData::LinkedSsts{base_table_file_number},
@@ -1206,12 +1226,12 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, SaveBlobFilesToConcurrentJobs) {
   constexpr uint64_t total_blob_count = 234;
   constexpr uint64_t total_blob_bytes = 1 << 22;
 
-  edit.AddFile(level, table_file_number, path_id, file_size,
-               GetInternalKey(smallest), GetInternalKey(largest),
-               smallest_seqno, largest_seqno, marked_for_compaction,
-               Temperature::kUnknown, blob_file_number,
-               kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               checksum_value, checksum_method, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+  edit.AddFile(
+      level, table_file_number, path_id, file_size, GetInternalKey(smallest),
+      GetInternalKey(largest), smallest_seqno, largest_seqno,
+      marked_for_compaction, Temperature::kUnknown, blob_file_number,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime, 2 /*epoch_number*/,
+      checksum_value, checksum_method, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   edit.AddBlobFile(blob_file_number, total_blob_count, total_blob_bytes,
                    checksum_method, checksum_value);
 
@@ -1297,8 +1317,9 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, CheckConsistencyForBlobFiles) {
                /* largest_seqno */ 200, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
                Temperature::kUnknown,
                /* oldest_blob_file_number */ 16, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
-               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
+               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+               kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   edit.AddFile(/* level */ 1, /* file_number */ 700, /* path_id */ 0,
                /* file_size */ 100, /* smallest */ GetInternalKey("801"),
@@ -1306,8 +1327,9 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, CheckConsistencyForBlobFiles) {
                /* largest_seqno */ 200, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
                Temperature::kUnknown,
                /* oldest_blob_file_number */ 1000, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
-               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
+               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+               kNullUniqueId64x2);
   edit.AddBlobFile(/* blob_file_number */ 1000, /* total_blob_count */ 2000,
                    /* total_blob_bytes */ 200000,
                    /* checksum_method */ std::string(),
@@ -1527,7 +1549,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, MaintainLinkedSstsForBlobFiles) {
       /* largest_seqno */ 2100, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
       Temperature::kUnknown,
       /* oldest_blob_file_number */ 1, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-      kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+      kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber, kUnknownFileChecksum,
       kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   // Add an SST that does not reference any blob files.
@@ -1537,7 +1559,7 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, MaintainLinkedSstsForBlobFiles) {
       /* largest */ GetInternalKey("22", 2200), /* smallest_seqno */ 2200,
       /* largest_seqno */ 2200, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
       Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-      kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+      kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber, kUnknownFileChecksum,
       kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   // Delete a file that references a blob file.
@@ -1559,8 +1581,9 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, MaintainLinkedSstsForBlobFiles) {
                /* largest_seqno */ 300, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
                Temperature::kUnknown,
                /* oldest_blob_file_number */ 3, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
-               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
+               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+               kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   // Trivially move a file that does not reference any blob files.
   edit.DeleteFile(/* level */ 1, /* file_number */ 13);
@@ -1571,8 +1594,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, MaintainLinkedSstsForBlobFiles) {
                /* largest_seqno */ 1300, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
                Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
                kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               kUnknownEpochNumber, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   // Add one more SST file that references a blob file, then promptly
   // delete it in a second version edit before the new version gets saved.
@@ -1584,8 +1607,9 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, MaintainLinkedSstsForBlobFiles) {
                /* largest_seqno */ 2300, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
                Temperature::kUnknown,
                /* oldest_blob_file_number */ 5, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
-               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber,
+               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+               kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   VersionEdit edit2;
 
@@ -1634,7 +1658,13 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, MaintainLinkedSstsForBlobFiles) {
 }
 
 TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, CheckConsistencyForFileDeletedTwice) {
-  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100U);
+  Add(0, 1U, "150", "200", 100, /*path_id*/ 0,
+      /*smallest_seq*/ 100, /*largest_seq*/ 100,
+      /*num_entries*/ 0, /*num_deletions*/ 0,
+      /*sampled*/ false, /*smallest_seqno*/ 0,
+      /*largest_seqno*/ 0,
+      /*oldest_blob_file_number*/ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      /*epoch_number*/ 1);
 
   UpdateVersionStorageInfo();
 
@@ -1666,6 +1696,99 @@ TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, CheckConsistencyForFileDeletedTwice) {
   UnrefFilesInVersion(&new_vstorage2);
 }
 
+TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, CheckConsistencyForL0FilesSortedByEpochNumber) {
+  Status s;
+  // To verify files of same epoch number of overlapping ranges are caught as
+  // corrupted
+  VersionEdit version_edit_1;
+  version_edit_1.AddFile(
+      /* level */ 0, /* file_number */ 1U, /* path_id */ 0,
+      /* file_size */ 100, /* smallest */ GetInternalKey("a", 1),
+      /* largest */ GetInternalKey("c", 3), /* smallest_seqno */ 1,
+      /* largest_seqno */ 3, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
+      Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /* oldest_blob_file_number */ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      1 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+      kNullUniqueId64x2);
+  version_edit_1.AddFile(
+      /* level */ 0, /* file_number */ 2U, /* path_id */ 0,
+      /* file_size */ 100, /* smallest */ GetInternalKey("b", 2),
+      /* largest */ GetInternalKey("d", 4), /* smallest_seqno */ 2,
+      /* largest_seqno */ 4, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
+      Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /* oldest_blob_file_number */ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      1 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+      kNullUniqueId64x2);
+
+  VersionBuilder version_builder_1(EnvOptions(), &ioptions_,
+                                   nullptr /* table_cache */, &vstorage_,
+                                   nullptr /* file_metadata_cache_res_mgr */);
+  VersionStorageInfo new_vstorage_1(
+      &icmp_, ucmp_, options_.num_levels, kCompactionStyleLevel,
+      nullptr /* src_vstorage */, true /* force_consistency_checks */);
+
+  ASSERT_OK(version_builder_1.Apply(&version_edit_1));
+  s = version_builder_1.SaveTo(&new_vstorage_1);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(s.IsCorruption());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(std::strstr(
+      s.getState(), "L0 files of same epoch number but overlapping range"));
+  UnrefFilesInVersion(&new_vstorage_1);
+
+  // To verify L0 files not sorted by epoch_number are caught as corrupted
+  VersionEdit version_edit_2;
+  version_edit_2.AddFile(
+      /* level */ 0, /* file_number */ 1U, /* path_id */ 0,
+      /* file_size */ 100, /* smallest */ GetInternalKey("a", 1),
+      /* largest */ GetInternalKey("a", 1), /* smallest_seqno */ 1,
+      /* largest_seqno */ 1, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
+      Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /* oldest_blob_file_number */ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      1 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+      kNullUniqueId64x2);
+  version_edit_2.AddFile(
+      /* level */ 0, /* file_number */ 2U, /* path_id */ 0,
+      /* file_size */ 100, /* smallest */ GetInternalKey("b", 2),
+      /* largest */ GetInternalKey("b", 2), /* smallest_seqno */ 2,
+      /* largest_seqno */ 2, /* marked_for_compaction */ false,
+      Temperature::kUnknown,
+      /* oldest_blob_file_number */ kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
+      kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
+      2 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+      kNullUniqueId64x2);
+
+  VersionBuilder version_builder_2(EnvOptions(), &ioptions_,
+                                   nullptr /* table_cache */, &vstorage_,
+                                   nullptr /* file_metadata_cache_res_mgr */);
+  VersionStorageInfo new_vstorage_2(
+      &icmp_, ucmp_, options_.num_levels, kCompactionStyleLevel,
+      nullptr /* src_vstorage */, true /* force_consistency_checks */);
+
+  ASSERT_OK(version_builder_2.Apply(&version_edit_2));
+  s = version_builder_2.SaveTo(&new_vstorage_2);
+  ASSERT_TRUE(s.ok());
+
+  const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& l0_files = new_vstorage_2.LevelFiles(0);
+  ASSERT_EQ(l0_files.size(), 2);
+  // Manually corrupt L0 files's epoch_number
+  l0_files[0]->epoch_number = 1;
+  l0_files[1]->epoch_number = 2;
+
+  // To surface corruption error by applying dummy version edit
+  VersionEdit dummy_version_edit;
+  VersionBuilder dummy_version_builder(
+      EnvOptions(), &ioptions_, nullptr /* table_cache */, &vstorage_,
+      nullptr /* file_metadata_cache_res_mgr */);
+  ASSERT_OK(dummy_version_builder.Apply(&dummy_version_edit));
+  s = dummy_version_builder.SaveTo(&new_vstorage_2);
+  EXPECT_TRUE(s.IsCorruption());
+  EXPECT_TRUE(std::strstr(s.getState(), "L0 files are not sorted properly"));
+
+  UnrefFilesInVersion(&new_vstorage_2);
+}
+
 TEST_F(VersionBuilderTest, EstimatedActiveKeys) {
   const uint32_t kTotalSamples = 20;
   const uint32_t kNumLevels = 5;
diff --git a/db/version_edit.cc b/db/version_edit.cc
index c763d98e8..df5226077 100644
--- a/db/version_edit.cc
+++ b/db/version_edit.cc
@@ -135,7 +135,8 @@ bool VersionEdit::EncodeTo(std::string* dst) const {
   bool min_log_num_written = false;
   for (size_t i = 0; i < new_files_.size(); i++) {
     const FileMetaData& f = new_files_[i].second;
-    if (!f.smallest.Valid() || !f.largest.Valid()) {
+    if (!f.smallest.Valid() || !f.largest.Valid() ||
+        f.epoch_number == kUnknownEpochNumber) {
       return false;
     }
     PutVarint32(dst, kNewFile4);
@@ -184,6 +185,11 @@ bool VersionEdit::EncodeTo(std::string* dst) const {
                              &varint_file_creation_time);
     PutLengthPrefixedSlice(dst, Slice(varint_file_creation_time));
 
+    PutVarint32(dst, NewFileCustomTag::kEpochNumber);
+    std::string varint_epoch_number;
+    PutVarint64(&varint_epoch_number, f.epoch_number);
+    PutLengthPrefixedSlice(dst, Slice(varint_epoch_number));
+
     PutVarint32(dst, NewFileCustomTag::kFileChecksum);
     PutLengthPrefixedSlice(dst, Slice(f.file_checksum));
 
@@ -352,6 +358,11 @@ const char* VersionEdit::DecodeNewFile4From(Slice* input) {
             return "invalid file creation time";
           }
           break;
+        case kEpochNumber:
+          if (!GetVarint64(&field, &f.epoch_number)) {
+            return "invalid epoch number";
+          }
+          break;
         case kFileChecksum:
           f.file_checksum = field.ToString();
           break;
@@ -808,6 +819,8 @@ std::string VersionEdit::DebugString(bool hex_key) const {
     AppendNumberTo(&r, f.oldest_ancester_time);
     r.append(" file_creation_time:");
     AppendNumberTo(&r, f.file_creation_time);
+    r.append(" epoch_number:");
+    AppendNumberTo(&r, f.epoch_number);
     r.append(" file_checksum:");
     r.append(Slice(f.file_checksum).ToString(true));
     r.append(" file_checksum_func_name: ");
@@ -927,6 +940,7 @@ std::string VersionEdit::DebugJSON(int edit_num, bool hex_key) const {
       jw << "LargestIKey" << f.largest.DebugString(hex_key);
       jw << "OldestAncesterTime" << f.oldest_ancester_time;
       jw << "FileCreationTime" << f.file_creation_time;
+      jw << "EpochNumber" << f.epoch_number;
       jw << "FileChecksum" << Slice(f.file_checksum).ToString(true);
       jw << "FileChecksumFuncName" << f.file_checksum_func_name;
       if (f.temperature != Temperature::kUnknown) {
diff --git a/db/version_edit.h b/db/version_edit.h
index c9800a3c0..cfc5f14e5 100644
--- a/db/version_edit.h
+++ b/db/version_edit.h
@@ -88,6 +88,7 @@ enum NewFileCustomTag : uint32_t {
   kMinTimestamp = 10,
   kMaxTimestamp = 11,
   kUniqueId = 12,
+  kEpochNumber = 13,
 
   // If this bit for the custom tag is set, opening DB should fail if
   // we don't know this field.
@@ -102,6 +103,10 @@ class VersionSet;
 constexpr uint64_t kFileNumberMask = 0x3FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF;
 constexpr uint64_t kUnknownOldestAncesterTime = 0;
 constexpr uint64_t kUnknownFileCreationTime = 0;
+constexpr uint64_t kUnknownEpochNumber = 0;
+// If `Options::allow_ingest_behind` is true, this epoch number
+// will be dedicated to files ingested behind.
+constexpr uint64_t kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind = 1;
 
 extern uint64_t PackFileNumberAndPathId(uint64_t number, uint64_t path_id);
 
@@ -210,6 +215,12 @@ struct FileMetaData {
   // Unix time when the SST file is created.
   uint64_t file_creation_time = kUnknownFileCreationTime;
 
+  // The order of a file being flushed or ingested/imported.
+  // Compaction output file will be assigned with the minimum `epoch_number`
+  // among input files'.
+  // For L0, larger `epoch_number` indicates newer L0 file.
+  uint64_t epoch_number = kUnknownEpochNumber;
+
   // File checksum
   std::string file_checksum = kUnknownFileChecksum;
 
@@ -227,7 +238,7 @@ struct FileMetaData {
                const SequenceNumber& largest_seq, bool marked_for_compact,
                Temperature _temperature, uint64_t oldest_blob_file,
                uint64_t _oldest_ancester_time, uint64_t _file_creation_time,
-               const std::string& _file_checksum,
+               uint64_t _epoch_number, const std::string& _file_checksum,
                const std::string& _file_checksum_func_name,
                UniqueId64x2 _unique_id)
       : fd(file, file_path_id, file_size, smallest_seq, largest_seq),
@@ -238,6 +249,7 @@ struct FileMetaData {
         oldest_blob_file_number(oldest_blob_file),
         oldest_ancester_time(_oldest_ancester_time),
         file_creation_time(_file_creation_time),
+        epoch_number(_epoch_number),
         file_checksum(_file_checksum),
         file_checksum_func_name(_file_checksum_func_name),
         unique_id(std::move(_unique_id)) {
@@ -420,7 +432,7 @@ class VersionEdit {
                const SequenceNumber& largest_seqno, bool marked_for_compaction,
                Temperature temperature, uint64_t oldest_blob_file_number,
                uint64_t oldest_ancester_time, uint64_t file_creation_time,
-               const std::string& file_checksum,
+               uint64_t epoch_number, const std::string& file_checksum,
                const std::string& file_checksum_func_name,
                const UniqueId64x2& unique_id) {
     assert(smallest_seqno <= largest_seqno);
@@ -429,8 +441,8 @@ class VersionEdit {
         FileMetaData(file, file_path_id, file_size, smallest, largest,
                      smallest_seqno, largest_seqno, marked_for_compaction,
                      temperature, oldest_blob_file_number, oldest_ancester_time,
-                     file_creation_time, file_checksum, file_checksum_func_name,
-                     unique_id));
+                     file_creation_time, epoch_number, file_checksum,
+                     file_checksum_func_name, unique_id));
     if (!HasLastSequence() || largest_seqno > GetLastSequence()) {
       SetLastSequence(largest_seqno);
     }
diff --git a/db/version_edit_handler.cc b/db/version_edit_handler.cc
index 145e78789..df537d68a 100644
--- a/db/version_edit_handler.cc
+++ b/db/version_edit_handler.cc
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 
 #include "db/blob/blob_file_reader.h"
 #include "db/blob/blob_source.h"
+#include "db/version_edit.h"
 #include "logging/logging.h"
 #include "monitoring/persistent_stats_history.h"
 
@@ -154,7 +155,7 @@ VersionEditHandler::VersionEditHandler(
     bool read_only, std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor> column_families,
     VersionSet* version_set, bool track_missing_files,
     bool no_error_if_files_missing, const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer,
-    bool skip_load_table_files)
+    bool skip_load_table_files, EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement)
     : VersionEditHandlerBase(),
       read_only_(read_only),
       column_families_(std::move(column_families)),
@@ -163,7 +164,8 @@ VersionEditHandler::VersionEditHandler(
       no_error_if_files_missing_(no_error_if_files_missing),
       io_tracer_(io_tracer),
       skip_load_table_files_(skip_load_table_files),
-      initialized_(false) {
+      initialized_(false),
+      epoch_number_requirement_(epoch_number_requirement) {
   assert(version_set_ != nullptr);
 }
 
@@ -431,6 +433,7 @@ void VersionEditHandler::CheckIterationResult(const log::Reader& reader,
       }
     }
   }
+
   if (s->ok()) {
     for (auto* cfd : *(version_set_->column_family_set_)) {
       if (cfd->IsDropped()) {
@@ -528,7 +531,8 @@ Status VersionEditHandler::MaybeCreateVersion(const VersionEdit& /*edit*/,
     auto* builder = builder_iter->second->version_builder();
     auto* v = new Version(cfd, version_set_, version_set_->file_options_,
                           *cfd->GetLatestMutableCFOptions(), io_tracer_,
-                          version_set_->current_version_number_++);
+                          version_set_->current_version_number_++,
+                          epoch_number_requirement_);
     s = builder->SaveTo(v->storage_info());
     if (s.ok()) {
       // Install new version
@@ -642,10 +646,12 @@ Status VersionEditHandler::ExtractInfoFromVersionEdit(ColumnFamilyData* cfd,
 
 VersionEditHandlerPointInTime::VersionEditHandlerPointInTime(
     bool read_only, std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor> column_families,
-    VersionSet* version_set, const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer)
+    VersionSet* version_set, const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer,
+    EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement)
     : VersionEditHandler(read_only, column_families, version_set,
                          /*track_missing_files=*/true,
-                         /*no_error_if_files_missing=*/true, io_tracer) {}
+                         /*no_error_if_files_missing=*/true, io_tracer,
+                         epoch_number_requirement) {}
 
 VersionEditHandlerPointInTime::~VersionEditHandlerPointInTime() {
   for (const auto& elem : versions_) {
@@ -804,7 +810,8 @@ Status VersionEditHandlerPointInTime::MaybeCreateVersion(
 
     auto* version = new Version(cfd, version_set_, version_set_->file_options_,
                                 *cfd->GetLatestMutableCFOptions(), io_tracer_,
-                                version_set_->current_version_number_++);
+                                version_set_->current_version_number_++,
+                                epoch_number_requirement_);
     s = builder->LoadTableHandlers(
         cfd->internal_stats(),
         version_set_->db_options_->max_file_opening_threads, false, true,
diff --git a/db/version_edit_handler.h b/db/version_edit_handler.h
index fd2379b07..fc3fe7c6b 100644
--- a/db/version_edit_handler.h
+++ b/db/version_edit_handler.h
@@ -110,10 +110,13 @@ class VersionEditHandler : public VersionEditHandlerBase {
       const std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor>& column_families,
       VersionSet* version_set, bool track_missing_files,
       bool no_error_if_files_missing,
-      const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer)
+      const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer,
+      EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+          EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent)
       : VersionEditHandler(read_only, column_families, version_set,
                            track_missing_files, no_error_if_files_missing,
-                           io_tracer, /*skip_load_table_files=*/false) {}
+                           io_tracer, /*skip_load_table_files=*/false,
+                           epoch_number_requirement) {}
 
   ~VersionEditHandler() override {}
 
@@ -134,7 +137,9 @@ class VersionEditHandler : public VersionEditHandlerBase {
       bool read_only, std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor> column_families,
       VersionSet* version_set, bool track_missing_files,
       bool no_error_if_files_missing,
-      const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer, bool skip_load_table_files);
+      const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer, bool skip_load_table_files,
+      EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+          EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent);
 
   Status ApplyVersionEdit(VersionEdit& edit, ColumnFamilyData** cfd) override;
 
@@ -189,6 +194,7 @@ class VersionEditHandler : public VersionEditHandlerBase {
   bool skip_load_table_files_;
   bool initialized_;
   std::unique_ptr<std::unordered_map<uint32_t, std::string>> cf_to_cmp_names_;
+  EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement_;
 
  private:
   Status ExtractInfoFromVersionEdit(ColumnFamilyData* cfd,
@@ -205,7 +211,9 @@ class VersionEditHandlerPointInTime : public VersionEditHandler {
  public:
   VersionEditHandlerPointInTime(
       bool read_only, std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor> column_families,
-      VersionSet* version_set, const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer);
+      VersionSet* version_set, const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer,
+      EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+          EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent);
   ~VersionEditHandlerPointInTime() override;
 
  protected:
@@ -229,9 +237,12 @@ class ManifestTailer : public VersionEditHandlerPointInTime {
  public:
   explicit ManifestTailer(std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor> column_families,
                           VersionSet* version_set,
-                          const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer)
+                          const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer,
+                          EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+                              EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent)
       : VersionEditHandlerPointInTime(/*read_only=*/false, column_families,
-                                      version_set, io_tracer),
+                                      version_set, io_tracer,
+                                      epoch_number_requirement),
         mode_(Mode::kRecovery) {}
 
   void PrepareToReadNewManifest() {
diff --git a/db/version_edit_test.cc b/db/version_edit_test.cc
index c7f271d83..7571291e2 100644
--- a/db/version_edit_test.cc
+++ b/db/version_edit_test.cc
@@ -43,7 +43,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionEditTest, EncodeDecode) {
                  InternalKey("foo", kBig + 500 + i, kTypeValue),
                  InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 600 + i, kTypeDeletion),
                  kBig + 500 + i, kBig + 600 + i, false, Temperature::kUnknown,
-                 kInvalidBlobFileNumber, 888, 678, "234", "crc32c",
+                 kInvalidBlobFileNumber, 888, 678,
+                 kBig + 300 + i /* epoch_number */, "234", "crc32c",
                  kNullUniqueId64x2);
     edit.DeleteFile(4, kBig + 700 + i);
   }
@@ -63,25 +64,25 @@ TEST_F(VersionEditTest, EncodeDecodeNewFile4) {
                InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 600, kTypeDeletion), kBig + 500,
                kBig + 600, true, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
                kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               300 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   edit.AddFile(4, 301, 3, 100, InternalKey("foo", kBig + 501, kTypeValue),
                InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 601, kTypeDeletion), kBig + 501,
                kBig + 601, false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
                kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               301 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   edit.AddFile(5, 302, 0, 100, InternalKey("foo", kBig + 502, kTypeValue),
                InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 602, kTypeDeletion), kBig + 502,
                kBig + 602, true, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-               666, 888, kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               666, 888, 302 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   edit.AddFile(5, 303, 0, 100, InternalKey("foo", kBig + 503, kTypeBlobIndex),
                InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 603, kTypeBlobIndex), kBig + 503,
                kBig + 603, true, Temperature::kUnknown, 1001,
                kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               303 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   edit.DeleteFile(4, 700);
 
@@ -121,12 +122,13 @@ TEST_F(VersionEditTest, ForwardCompatibleNewFile4) {
                InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 600, kTypeDeletion), kBig + 500,
                kBig + 600, true, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
                kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               300 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   edit.AddFile(4, 301, 3, 100, InternalKey("foo", kBig + 501, kTypeValue),
                InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 601, kTypeDeletion), kBig + 501,
                kBig + 601, false, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
-               686, 868, "234", "crc32c", kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               686, 868, 301 /* epoch_number */, "234", "crc32c",
+               kNullUniqueId64x2);
   edit.DeleteFile(4, 700);
 
   edit.SetComparatorName("foo");
@@ -174,8 +176,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionEditTest, NewFile4NotSupportedField) {
                InternalKey("zoo", kBig + 600, kTypeDeletion), kBig + 500,
                kBig + 600, true, Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
                kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               300 /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
 
   edit.SetComparatorName("foo");
   edit.SetLogNumber(kBig + 100);
@@ -205,8 +207,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionEditTest, EncodeEmptyFile) {
   edit.AddFile(0, 0, 0, 0, InternalKey(), InternalKey(), 0, 0, false,
                Temperature::kUnknown, kInvalidBlobFileNumber,
                kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-               kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
-               kNullUniqueId64x2);
+               1 /*epoch_number*/, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+               kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
   std::string buffer;
   ASSERT_TRUE(!edit.EncodeTo(&buffer));
 }
diff --git a/db/version_set.cc b/db/version_set.cc
index becdd6790..1030e5e28 100644
--- a/db/version_set.cc
+++ b/db/version_set.cc
@@ -1771,8 +1771,8 @@ void Version::GetColumnFamilyMetaData(ColumnFamilyMetaData* cf_meta) {
           file->stats.num_reads_sampled.load(std::memory_order_relaxed),
           file->being_compacted, file->temperature,
           file->oldest_blob_file_number, file->TryGetOldestAncesterTime(),
-          file->TryGetFileCreationTime(), file->file_checksum,
-          file->file_checksum_func_name);
+          file->TryGetFileCreationTime(), file->epoch_number,
+          file->file_checksum, file->file_checksum_func_name);
       files.back().num_entries = file->num_entries;
       files.back().num_deletions = file->num_deletions;
       level_size += file->fd.GetFileSize();
@@ -2036,7 +2036,8 @@ VersionStorageInfo::VersionStorageInfo(
     const InternalKeyComparator* internal_comparator,
     const Comparator* user_comparator, int levels,
     CompactionStyle compaction_style, VersionStorageInfo* ref_vstorage,
-    bool _force_consistency_checks)
+    bool _force_consistency_checks,
+    EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement)
     : internal_comparator_(internal_comparator),
       user_comparator_(user_comparator),
       // cfd is nullptr if Version is dummy
@@ -2064,7 +2065,8 @@ VersionStorageInfo::VersionStorageInfo(
       current_num_samples_(0),
       estimated_compaction_needed_bytes_(0),
       finalized_(false),
-      force_consistency_checks_(_force_consistency_checks) {
+      force_consistency_checks_(_force_consistency_checks),
+      epoch_number_requirement_(epoch_number_requirement) {
   if (ref_vstorage != nullptr) {
     accumulated_file_size_ = ref_vstorage->accumulated_file_size_;
     accumulated_raw_key_size_ = ref_vstorage->accumulated_raw_key_size_;
@@ -2085,7 +2087,8 @@ Version::Version(ColumnFamilyData* column_family_data, VersionSet* vset,
                  const FileOptions& file_opt,
                  const MutableCFOptions mutable_cf_options,
                  const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer,
-                 uint64_t version_number)
+                 uint64_t version_number,
+                 EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement)
     : env_(vset->env_),
       clock_(vset->clock_),
       cfd_(column_family_data),
@@ -2104,7 +2107,8 @@ Version::Version(ColumnFamilyData* column_family_data, VersionSet* vset,
           (cfd_ == nullptr || cfd_->current() == nullptr)
               ? nullptr
               : cfd_->current()->storage_info(),
-          cfd_ == nullptr ? false : cfd_->ioptions()->force_consistency_checks),
+          cfd_ == nullptr ? false : cfd_->ioptions()->force_consistency_checks,
+          epoch_number_requirement),
       vset_(vset),
       next_(this),
       prev_(this),
@@ -4280,6 +4284,74 @@ const char* VersionStorageInfo::LevelFileSummary(FileSummaryStorage* scratch,
   return scratch->buffer;
 }
 
+bool VersionStorageInfo::HasMissingEpochNumber() const {
+  for (int level = 0; level < num_levels_; ++level) {
+    for (const FileMetaData* f : files_[level]) {
+      if (f->epoch_number == kUnknownEpochNumber) {
+        return true;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+uint64_t VersionStorageInfo::GetMaxEpochNumberOfFiles() const {
+  uint64_t max_epoch_number = kUnknownEpochNumber;
+  for (int level = 0; level < num_levels_; ++level) {
+    for (const FileMetaData* f : files_[level]) {
+      max_epoch_number = std::max(max_epoch_number, f->epoch_number);
+    }
+  }
+  return max_epoch_number;
+}
+
+void VersionStorageInfo::RecoverEpochNumbers(ColumnFamilyData* cfd) {
+  cfd->ResetNextEpochNumber();
+
+  bool reserve_epoch_num_for_file_ingested_behind =
+      cfd->ioptions()->allow_ingest_behind;
+  if (reserve_epoch_num_for_file_ingested_behind) {
+    uint64_t reserved_epoch_number = cfd->NewEpochNumber();
+    assert(reserved_epoch_number == kReservedEpochNumberForFileIngestedBehind);
+    ROCKS_LOG_INFO(cfd->ioptions()->info_log.get(),
+                   "[%s]CF has reserved epoch number %" PRIu64
+                   " for files ingested "
+                   "behind since `Options::allow_ingest_behind` is true",
+                   cfd->GetName().c_str(), reserved_epoch_number);
+  }
+
+  if (HasMissingEpochNumber()) {
+    assert(epoch_number_requirement_ == EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing);
+    assert(num_levels_ >= 1);
+
+    for (int level = num_levels_ - 1; level >= 1; --level) {
+      auto& files_at_level = files_[level];
+      if (files_at_level.empty()) {
+        continue;
+      }
+      uint64_t next_epoch_number = cfd->NewEpochNumber();
+      for (FileMetaData* f : files_at_level) {
+        f->epoch_number = next_epoch_number;
+      }
+    }
+
+    for (auto file_meta_iter = files_[0].rbegin();
+         file_meta_iter != files_[0].rend(); file_meta_iter++) {
+      FileMetaData* f = *file_meta_iter;
+      f->epoch_number = cfd->NewEpochNumber();
+    }
+
+    ROCKS_LOG_WARN(cfd->ioptions()->info_log.get(),
+                   "[%s]CF's epoch numbers are inferred based on seqno",
+                   cfd->GetName().c_str());
+    epoch_number_requirement_ = EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent;
+  } else {
+    assert(epoch_number_requirement_ == EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent);
+    cfd->SetNextEpochNumber(
+        std::max(GetMaxEpochNumberOfFiles() + 1, cfd->GetNextEpochNumber()));
+  }
+}
+
 uint64_t VersionStorageInfo::MaxNextLevelOverlappingBytes() {
   uint64_t result = 0;
   std::vector<FileMetaData*> overlaps;
@@ -5557,7 +5629,8 @@ Status VersionSet::Recover(
                        true /* checksum */, 0 /* log_number */);
     VersionEditHandler handler(
         read_only, column_families, const_cast<VersionSet*>(this),
-        /*track_missing_files=*/false, no_error_if_files_missing, io_tracer_);
+        /*track_missing_files=*/false, no_error_if_files_missing, io_tracer_,
+        EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing);
     handler.Iterate(reader, &log_read_status);
     s = handler.status();
     if (s.ok()) {
@@ -5566,6 +5639,9 @@ Status VersionSet::Recover(
       assert(current_manifest_file_size != 0);
       handler.GetDbId(db_id);
     }
+    if (s.ok()) {
+      RecoverEpochNumbers();
+    }
   }
 
   if (s.ok()) {
@@ -5725,7 +5801,8 @@ Status VersionSet::TryRecoverFromOneManifest(
   log::Reader reader(nullptr, std::move(manifest_file_reader), &reporter,
                      /*checksum=*/true, /*log_num=*/0);
   VersionEditHandlerPointInTime handler_pit(
-      read_only, column_families, const_cast<VersionSet*>(this), io_tracer_);
+      read_only, column_families, const_cast<VersionSet*>(this), io_tracer_,
+      EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing);
 
   handler_pit.Iterate(reader, &s);
 
@@ -5734,7 +5811,21 @@ Status VersionSet::TryRecoverFromOneManifest(
   assert(nullptr != has_missing_table_file);
   *has_missing_table_file = handler_pit.HasMissingFiles();
 
-  return handler_pit.status();
+  s = handler_pit.status();
+  if (s.ok()) {
+    RecoverEpochNumbers();
+  }
+  return s;
+}
+
+void VersionSet::RecoverEpochNumbers() {
+  for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
+    if (cfd->IsDropped()) {
+      continue;
+    }
+    assert(cfd->initialized());
+    cfd->RecoverEpochNumbers();
+  }
 }
 
 Status VersionSet::ListColumnFamilies(std::vector<std::string>* column_families,
@@ -6121,7 +6212,7 @@ Status VersionSet::WriteCurrentStateToManifest(
                        f->fd.smallest_seqno, f->fd.largest_seqno,
                        f->marked_for_compaction, f->temperature,
                        f->oldest_blob_file_number, f->oldest_ancester_time,
-                       f->file_creation_time, f->file_checksum,
+                       f->file_creation_time, f->epoch_number, f->file_checksum,
                        f->file_checksum_func_name, f->unique_id);
         }
       }
@@ -6612,6 +6703,7 @@ void VersionSet::GetLiveFilesMetaData(std::vector<LiveFileMetaData>* metadata) {
         filemetadata.temperature = file->temperature;
         filemetadata.oldest_ancester_time = file->TryGetOldestAncesterTime();
         filemetadata.file_creation_time = file->TryGetFileCreationTime();
+        filemetadata.epoch_number = file->epoch_number;
         metadata->push_back(filemetadata);
       }
     }
@@ -6814,12 +6906,17 @@ Status ReactiveVersionSet::Recover(
   log::Reader* reader = manifest_reader->get();
   assert(reader);
 
-  manifest_tailer_.reset(new ManifestTailer(
-      column_families, const_cast<ReactiveVersionSet*>(this), io_tracer_));
+  manifest_tailer_.reset(
+      new ManifestTailer(column_families, const_cast<ReactiveVersionSet*>(this),
+                         io_tracer_, EpochNumberRequirement::kMightMissing));
 
   manifest_tailer_->Iterate(*reader, manifest_reader_status->get());
 
-  return manifest_tailer_->status();
+  s = manifest_tailer_->status();
+  if (s.ok()) {
+    RecoverEpochNumbers();
+  }
+  return s;
 }
 
 Status ReactiveVersionSet::ReadAndApply(
diff --git a/db/version_set.h b/db/version_set.h
index 03176a8b5..b92546ed6 100644
--- a/db/version_set.h
+++ b/db/version_set.h
@@ -116,6 +116,10 @@ extern bool SomeFileOverlapsRange(const InternalKeyComparator& icmp,
 extern void DoGenerateLevelFilesBrief(LevelFilesBrief* file_level,
                                       const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& files,
                                       Arena* arena);
+enum EpochNumberRequirement {
+  kMightMissing,
+  kMustPresent,
+};
 
 // Information of the storage associated with each Version, including number of
 // levels of LSM tree, files information at each level, files marked for
@@ -126,7 +130,9 @@ class VersionStorageInfo {
                      const Comparator* user_comparator, int num_levels,
                      CompactionStyle compaction_style,
                      VersionStorageInfo* src_vstorage,
-                     bool _force_consistency_checks);
+                     bool _force_consistency_checks,
+                     EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+                         EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent);
   // No copying allowed
   VersionStorageInfo(const VersionStorageInfo&) = delete;
   void operator=(const VersionStorageInfo&) = delete;
@@ -319,6 +325,17 @@ class VersionStorageInfo {
     return files_[level];
   }
 
+  bool HasMissingEpochNumber() const;
+  uint64_t GetMaxEpochNumberOfFiles() const;
+  EpochNumberRequirement GetEpochNumberRequirement() const {
+    return epoch_number_requirement_;
+  }
+  void SetEpochNumberRequirement(
+      EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement) {
+    epoch_number_requirement_ = epoch_number_requirement;
+  }
+  void RecoverEpochNumbers(ColumnFamilyData* cfd);
+
   class FileLocation {
    public:
     FileLocation() = default;
@@ -440,6 +457,11 @@ class VersionStorageInfo {
     return files_marked_for_compaction_;
   }
 
+  void TEST_AddFileMarkedForCompaction(int level, FileMetaData* f) {
+    f->marked_for_compaction = true;
+    files_marked_for_compaction_.emplace_back(level, f);
+  }
+
   // REQUIRES: ComputeCompactionScore has been called
   // REQUIRES: DB mutex held during access
   const autovector<std::pair<int, FileMetaData*>>& ExpiredTtlFiles() const {
@@ -723,6 +745,8 @@ class VersionStorageInfo {
   // is compiled in release mode
   bool force_consistency_checks_;
 
+  EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement_;
+
   friend class Version;
   friend class VersionSet;
 };
@@ -1047,7 +1071,9 @@ class Version {
   Version(ColumnFamilyData* cfd, VersionSet* vset, const FileOptions& file_opt,
           MutableCFOptions mutable_cf_options,
           const std::shared_ptr<IOTracer>& io_tracer,
-          uint64_t version_number = 0);
+          uint64_t version_number = 0,
+          EpochNumberRequirement epoch_number_requirement =
+              EpochNumberRequirement::kMustPresent);
 
   ~Version();
 
@@ -1188,6 +1214,10 @@ class VersionSet {
       const std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor>& column_families,
       bool read_only, std::string* db_id, bool* has_missing_table_file);
 
+  // Recover the next epoch number of each CFs and epoch number
+  // of their files (if missing)
+  void RecoverEpochNumbers();
+
   // Reads a manifest file and returns a list of column families in
   // column_families.
   static Status ListColumnFamilies(std::vector<std::string>* column_families,
diff --git a/db/version_set_test.cc b/db/version_set_test.cc
index 7d17406c1..c179f7a6a 100644
--- a/db/version_set_test.cc
+++ b/db/version_set_test.cc
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 #include "db/db_impl/db_impl.h"
 #include "db/db_test_util.h"
 #include "db/log_writer.h"
+#include "db/version_edit.h"
 #include "rocksdb/advanced_options.h"
 #include "rocksdb/convenience.h"
 #include "rocksdb/file_system.h"
@@ -49,7 +50,7 @@ class GenerateLevelFilesBriefTest : public testing::Test {
         InternalKey(largest, largest_seq, kTypeValue), smallest_seq,
         largest_seq, /* marked_for_compact */ false, Temperature::kUnknown,
         kInvalidBlobFileNumber, kUnknownOldestAncesterTime,
-        kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+        kUnknownFileCreationTime, kUnknownEpochNumber, kUnknownFileChecksum,
         kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
     files_.push_back(f);
   }
@@ -158,7 +159,8 @@ class VersionStorageInfoTestBase : public testing::Test {
         /* largest_seq */ 0, /* marked_for_compact */ false,
         Temperature::kUnknown, oldest_blob_file_number,
         kUnknownOldestAncesterTime, kUnknownFileCreationTime,
-        kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+        kUnknownEpochNumber, kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName,
+        kNullUniqueId64x2);
     f->compensated_file_size = file_size;
     vstorage_.AddFile(level, f);
   }
@@ -3191,15 +3193,19 @@ class VersionSetTestMissingFiles : public VersionSetTestBase,
     std::string column_family;
     std::string key;  // the only key
     int level = 0;
+    uint64_t epoch_number;
     SstInfo(uint64_t file_num, const std::string& cf_name,
-            const std::string& _key)
-        : SstInfo(file_num, cf_name, _key, 0) {}
+            const std::string& _key,
+            uint64_t _epoch_number = kUnknownEpochNumber)
+        : SstInfo(file_num, cf_name, _key, 0, _epoch_number) {}
     SstInfo(uint64_t file_num, const std::string& cf_name,
-            const std::string& _key, int lvl)
+            const std::string& _key, int lvl,
+            uint64_t _epoch_number = kUnknownEpochNumber)
         : file_number(file_num),
           column_family(cf_name),
           key(_key),
-          level(lvl) {}
+          level(lvl),
+          epoch_number(_epoch_number) {}
   };
 
   // Create dummy sst, return their metadata. Note that only file name and size
@@ -3235,7 +3241,7 @@ class VersionSetTestMissingFiles : public VersionSetTestBase,
       ASSERT_NE(0, file_size);
       file_metas->emplace_back(file_num, /*file_path_id=*/0, file_size, ikey,
                                ikey, 0, 0, false, Temperature::kUnknown, 0, 0,
-                               0, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+                               0, info.epoch_number, kUnknownFileChecksum,
                                kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
     }
   }
@@ -3273,11 +3279,11 @@ class VersionSetTestMissingFiles : public VersionSetTestBase,
 
 TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, ManifestFarBehindSst) {
   std::vector<SstInfo> existing_files = {
-      SstInfo(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a"),
-      SstInfo(102, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "b"),
-      SstInfo(103, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "c"),
-      SstInfo(107, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "d"),
-      SstInfo(110, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "e")};
+      SstInfo(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a", 100 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(102, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "b", 102 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(103, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "c", 103 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(107, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "d", 107 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(110, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "e", 110 /* epoch_number */)};
   std::vector<FileMetaData> file_metas;
   CreateDummyTableFiles(existing_files, &file_metas);
 
@@ -3288,10 +3294,12 @@ TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, ManifestFarBehindSst) {
     std::string largest_ukey = "b";
     InternalKey smallest_ikey(smallest_ukey, 1, ValueType::kTypeValue);
     InternalKey largest_ikey(largest_ukey, 1, ValueType::kTypeValue);
+
     FileMetaData meta = FileMetaData(
         file_num, /*file_path_id=*/0, /*file_size=*/12, smallest_ikey,
         largest_ikey, 0, 0, false, Temperature::kUnknown, 0, 0, 0,
-        kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+        file_num /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+        kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
     added_files.emplace_back(0, meta);
   }
   WriteFileAdditionAndDeletionToManifest(
@@ -3321,11 +3329,16 @@ TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, ManifestFarBehindSst) {
 
 TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, ManifestAheadofSst) {
   std::vector<SstInfo> existing_files = {
-      SstInfo(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a"),
-      SstInfo(102, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "b"),
-      SstInfo(103, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "c"),
-      SstInfo(107, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "d"),
-      SstInfo(110, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "e")};
+      SstInfo(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a", 0 /* level */,
+              100 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(102, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "b", 0 /* level */,
+              102 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(103, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "c", 0 /* level */,
+              103 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(107, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "d", 0 /* level */,
+              107 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(110, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "e", 0 /* level */,
+              110 /* epoch_number */)};
   std::vector<FileMetaData> file_metas;
   CreateDummyTableFiles(existing_files, &file_metas);
 
@@ -3346,7 +3359,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, ManifestAheadofSst) {
     FileMetaData meta = FileMetaData(
         file_num, /*file_path_id=*/0, /*file_size=*/12, smallest_ikey,
         largest_ikey, 0, 0, false, Temperature::kUnknown, 0, 0, 0,
-        kUnknownFileChecksum, kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
+        file_num /* epoch_number */, kUnknownFileChecksum,
+        kUnknownFileChecksumFuncName, kNullUniqueId64x2);
     added_files.emplace_back(0, meta);
   }
   WriteFileAdditionAndDeletionToManifest(
@@ -3381,11 +3395,16 @@ TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, ManifestAheadofSst) {
 
 TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, NoFileMissing) {
   std::vector<SstInfo> existing_files = {
-      SstInfo(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a"),
-      SstInfo(102, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "b"),
-      SstInfo(103, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "c"),
-      SstInfo(107, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "d"),
-      SstInfo(110, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "e")};
+      SstInfo(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a", 0 /* level */,
+              100 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(102, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "b", 0 /* level */,
+              102 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(103, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "c", 0 /* level */,
+              103 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(107, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "d", 0 /* level */,
+              107 /* epoch_number */),
+      SstInfo(110, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "e", 0 /* level */,
+              110 /* epoch_number */)};
   std::vector<FileMetaData> file_metas;
   CreateDummyTableFiles(existing_files, &file_metas);
 
@@ -3435,7 +3454,8 @@ TEST_F(VersionSetTestMissingFiles, MinLogNumberToKeep2PC) {
   db_options_.allow_2pc = true;
   NewDB();
 
-  SstInfo sst(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a");
+  SstInfo sst(100, kDefaultColumnFamilyName, "a", 0 /* level */,
+              100 /* epoch_number */);
   std::vector<FileMetaData> file_metas;
   CreateDummyTableFiles({sst}, &file_metas);
 
diff --git a/include/rocksdb/metadata.h b/include/rocksdb/metadata.h
index 0cdffcd5f..3cdd8bd8a 100644
--- a/include/rocksdb/metadata.h
+++ b/include/rocksdb/metadata.h
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ struct SstFileMetaData : public FileStorageInfo {
                   bool _being_compacted, Temperature _temperature,
                   uint64_t _oldest_blob_file_number,
                   uint64_t _oldest_ancester_time, uint64_t _file_creation_time,
-                  std::string& _file_checksum,
+                  uint64_t _epoch_number, std::string& _file_checksum,
                   std::string& _file_checksum_func_name)
       : smallest_seqno(_smallest_seqno),
         largest_seqno(_largest_seqno),
@@ -94,7 +94,8 @@ struct SstFileMetaData : public FileStorageInfo {
         num_deletions(0),
         oldest_blob_file_number(_oldest_blob_file_number),
         oldest_ancester_time(_oldest_ancester_time),
-        file_creation_time(_file_creation_time) {
+        file_creation_time(_file_creation_time),
+        epoch_number(_epoch_number) {
     if (!_file_name.empty()) {
       if (_file_name[0] == '/') {
         relative_filename = _file_name.substr(1);
@@ -141,7 +142,12 @@ struct SstFileMetaData : public FileStorageInfo {
   // Timestamp when the SST file is created, provided by
   // SystemClock::GetCurrentTime(). 0 if the information is not available.
   uint64_t file_creation_time = 0;
-
+  // The order of a file being flushed or ingested/imported.
+  // Compaction output file will be assigned with the minimum `epoch_number`
+  // among input files'.
+  // For L0, larger `epoch_number` indicates newer L0 file.
+  // 0 if the information is not available.
+  uint64_t epoch_number = 0;
   // DEPRECATED: The name of the file within its directory with a
   // leading slash (e.g. "/123456.sst"). Use relative_filename from base struct
   // instead.
diff --git a/utilities/checkpoint/checkpoint_impl.cc b/utilities/checkpoint/checkpoint_impl.cc
index 44ce70b1b..cdea325cd 100644
--- a/utilities/checkpoint/checkpoint_impl.cc
+++ b/utilities/checkpoint/checkpoint_impl.cc
@@ -382,6 +382,7 @@ Status CheckpointImpl::ExportColumnFamily(
         live_file_metadata.largestkey = std::move(file_metadata.largestkey);
         live_file_metadata.oldest_blob_file_number =
             file_metadata.oldest_blob_file_number;
+        live_file_metadata.epoch_number = file_metadata.epoch_number;
         live_file_metadata.level = level_metadata.level;
         result_metadata->files.push_back(live_file_metadata);
       }