diff --git a/HISTORY.md b/HISTORY.md
index 9f128299a..0b011dc7e 100644
--- a/HISTORY.md
+++ b/HISTORY.md
@@ -26,6 +26,9 @@
 ### Bug Fixes
 * Fail recovery and report once hitting a physical log record checksum mismatch, while reading MANIFEST. RocksDB should not continue processing the MANIFEST any further.
 
+### Performance Improvements
+* Eliminate key copies for internal comparisons while accessing ingested block-based tables.
+
 ## 6.11 (6/12/2020)
 ### Bug Fixes
 * Fix consistency checking error swallowing in some cases when options.force_consistency_checks = true.
diff --git a/db/dbformat.cc b/db/dbformat.cc
index c72388c31..85411ed3e 100644
--- a/db/dbformat.cc
+++ b/db/dbformat.cc
@@ -26,12 +26,6 @@ namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE {
 const ValueType kValueTypeForSeek = kTypeDeletionWithTimestamp;
 const ValueType kValueTypeForSeekForPrev = kTypeDeletion;
 
-uint64_t PackSequenceAndType(uint64_t seq, ValueType t) {
-  assert(seq <= kMaxSequenceNumber);
-  assert(IsExtendedValueType(t));
-  return (seq << 8) | t;
-}
-
 EntryType GetEntryType(ValueType value_type) {
   switch (value_type) {
     case kTypeValue:
@@ -62,14 +56,6 @@ bool ParseFullKey(const Slice& internal_key, FullKey* fkey) {
   return true;
 }
 
-void UnPackSequenceAndType(uint64_t packed, uint64_t* seq, ValueType* t) {
-  *seq = packed >> 8;
-  *t = static_cast<ValueType>(packed & 0xff);
-
-  assert(*seq <= kMaxSequenceNumber);
-  assert(IsExtendedValueType(*t));
-}
-
 void AppendInternalKey(std::string* result, const ParsedInternalKey& key) {
   result->append(key.user_key.data(), key.user_key.size());
   PutFixed64(result, PackSequenceAndType(key.sequence, key.type));
@@ -111,7 +97,12 @@ std::string InternalKey::DebugString(bool hex) const {
   return result;
 }
 
-const char* InternalKeyComparator::Name() const { return name_.c_str(); }
+const char* InternalKeyComparator::Name() const {
+  if (name_.empty()) {
+    return "rocksdb.anonymous.InternalKeyComparator";
+  }
+  return name_.c_str();
+}
 
 int InternalKeyComparator::Compare(const ParsedInternalKey& a,
                                    const ParsedInternalKey& b) const {
diff --git a/db/dbformat.h b/db/dbformat.h
index dac6f3d46..6911d4297 100644
--- a/db/dbformat.h
+++ b/db/dbformat.h
@@ -124,11 +124,22 @@ inline size_t InternalKeyEncodingLength(const ParsedInternalKey& key) {
 }
 
 // Pack a sequence number and a ValueType into a uint64_t
-extern uint64_t PackSequenceAndType(uint64_t seq, ValueType t);
+inline uint64_t PackSequenceAndType(uint64_t seq, ValueType t) {
+  assert(seq <= kMaxSequenceNumber);
+  assert(IsExtendedValueType(t));
+  return (seq << 8) | t;
+}
 
 // Given the result of PackSequenceAndType, store the sequence number in *seq
 // and the ValueType in *t.
-extern void UnPackSequenceAndType(uint64_t packed, uint64_t* seq, ValueType* t);
+inline void UnPackSequenceAndType(uint64_t packed, uint64_t* seq,
+                                  ValueType* t) {
+  *seq = packed >> 8;
+  *t = static_cast<ValueType>(packed & 0xff);
+
+  assert(*seq <= kMaxSequenceNumber);
+  assert(IsExtendedValueType(*t));
+}
 
 EntryType GetEntryType(ValueType value_type);
 
@@ -200,11 +211,22 @@ class InternalKeyComparator
   std::string name_;
 
  public:
-  explicit InternalKeyComparator(const Comparator* c)
-      : Comparator(c->timestamp_size()),
-        user_comparator_(c),
-        name_("rocksdb.InternalKeyComparator:" +
-              std::string(user_comparator_.Name())) {}
+  // `InternalKeyComparator`s constructed with the default constructor are not
+  // usable and will segfault on any attempt to use them for comparisons.
+  InternalKeyComparator() = default;
+
+  // @param named If true, assign a name to this comparator based on the
+  //    underlying comparator's name. This involves an allocation and copy in
+  //    this constructor to precompute the result of `Name()`. To avoid this
+  //    overhead, set `named` to false. In that case, `Name()` will return a
+  //    generic name that is non-specific to the underlying comparator.
+  explicit InternalKeyComparator(const Comparator* c, bool named = true)
+      : Comparator(c->timestamp_size()), user_comparator_(c) {
+    if (named) {
+      name_ = "rocksdb.InternalKeyComparator:" +
+              std::string(user_comparator_.Name());
+    }
+  }
   virtual ~InternalKeyComparator() {}
 
   virtual const char* Name() const override;
@@ -221,6 +243,12 @@ class InternalKeyComparator
 
   int Compare(const InternalKey& a, const InternalKey& b) const;
   int Compare(const ParsedInternalKey& a, const ParsedInternalKey& b) const;
+  // In this `Compare()` overload, the sequence numbers provided in
+  // `a_global_seqno` and `b_global_seqno` override the sequence numbers in `a`
+  // and `b`, respectively. To disable sequence number override(s), provide the
+  // value `kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber`.
+  int Compare(const Slice& a, SequenceNumber a_global_seqno, const Slice& b,
+              SequenceNumber b_global_seqno) const;
   virtual const Comparator* GetRootComparator() const override {
     return user_comparator_.GetRootComparator();
   }
@@ -677,6 +705,32 @@ inline int InternalKeyComparator::CompareKeySeq(const Slice& akey,
   return r;
 }
 
+inline int InternalKeyComparator::Compare(const Slice& a,
+                                          SequenceNumber a_global_seqno,
+                                          const Slice& b,
+                                          SequenceNumber b_global_seqno) const {
+  int r = user_comparator_.Compare(ExtractUserKey(a), ExtractUserKey(b));
+  if (r == 0) {
+    uint64_t a_footer, b_footer;
+    if (a_global_seqno == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber) {
+      a_footer = ExtractInternalKeyFooter(a);
+    } else {
+      a_footer = PackSequenceAndType(a_global_seqno, ExtractValueType(a));
+    }
+    if (b_global_seqno == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber) {
+      b_footer = ExtractInternalKeyFooter(b);
+    } else {
+      b_footer = PackSequenceAndType(b_global_seqno, ExtractValueType(b));
+    }
+    if (a_footer > b_footer) {
+      r = -1;
+    } else if (a_footer < b_footer) {
+      r = +1;
+    }
+  }
+  return r;
+}
+
 // Wrap InternalKeyComparator as a comparator class for ParsedInternalKey.
 struct ParsedInternalKeyComparator {
   explicit ParsedInternalKeyComparator(const InternalKeyComparator* c)
diff --git a/table/block_based/binary_search_index_reader.cc b/table/block_based/binary_search_index_reader.cc
index 8a2b72963..12469eadb 100644
--- a/table/block_based/binary_search_index_reader.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/binary_search_index_reader.cc
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ InternalIteratorBase<IndexValue>* BinarySearchIndexReader::NewIterator(
   // We don't return pinned data from index blocks, so no need
   // to set `block_contents_pinned`.
   auto it = index_block.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-      internal_comparator(), internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
+      internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
       rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kIndex), iter, kNullStats, true,
       index_has_first_key(), index_key_includes_seq(), index_value_is_full());
 
diff --git a/table/block_based/block.cc b/table/block_based/block.cc
index 8bf7e11d4..e619aa2c9 100644
--- a/table/block_based/block.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/block.cc
@@ -127,19 +127,15 @@ struct DecodeKeyV4 {
   }
 };
 
-void DataBlockIter::Next() {
-  ParseNextDataKey<DecodeEntry>();
-}
+void DataBlockIter::NextImpl() { ParseNextDataKey<DecodeEntry>(); }
 
-void DataBlockIter::NextOrReport() {
+void DataBlockIter::NextOrReportImpl() {
   ParseNextDataKey<CheckAndDecodeEntry>();
 }
 
-void IndexBlockIter::Next() {
-  ParseNextIndexKey();
-}
+void IndexBlockIter::NextImpl() { ParseNextIndexKey(); }
 
-void IndexBlockIter::Prev() {
+void IndexBlockIter::PrevImpl() {
   assert(Valid());
   // Scan backwards to a restart point before current_
   const uint32_t original = current_;
@@ -158,8 +154,8 @@ void IndexBlockIter::Prev() {
   }
 }
 
-// Similar to IndexBlockIter::Prev but also caches the prev entries
-void DataBlockIter::Prev() {
+// Similar to IndexBlockIter::PrevImpl but also caches the prev entries
+void DataBlockIter::PrevImpl() {
   assert(Valid());
 
   assert(prev_entries_idx_ == -1 ||
@@ -173,25 +169,26 @@ void DataBlockIter::Prev() {
         prev_entries_[prev_entries_idx_];
 
     const char* key_ptr = nullptr;
+    bool raw_key_cached;
     if (current_prev_entry.key_ptr != nullptr) {
       // The key is not delta encoded and stored in the data block
       key_ptr = current_prev_entry.key_ptr;
-      key_pinned_ = true;
+      raw_key_cached = false;
     } else {
       // The key is delta encoded and stored in prev_entries_keys_buff_
       key_ptr = prev_entries_keys_buff_.data() + current_prev_entry.key_offset;
-      key_pinned_ = false;
+      raw_key_cached = true;
     }
     const Slice current_key(key_ptr, current_prev_entry.key_size);
 
     current_ = current_prev_entry.offset;
-    raw_key_.SetKey(current_key, false /* copy */);
+    // TODO(ajkr): the copy when `raw_key_cached` is done here for convenience,
+    // not necessity. It is convenient since this class treats keys as pinned
+    // when `raw_key_` points to an outside buffer. So we cannot allow
+    // `raw_key_` point into Prev cache as it is a transient outside buffer
+    // (i.e., keys in it are not actually pinned).
+    raw_key_.SetKey(current_key, raw_key_cached /* copy */);
     value_ = current_prev_entry.value;
-    key_ = applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey();
-    // This is kind of odd in that applied_key_ may say the key is pinned while
-    // key_pinned_ ends up being false. That'll only happen when the key resides
-    // in a transient caching buffer.
-    key_pinned_ = key_pinned_ && applied_key_.IsKeyPinned();
 
     return;
   }
@@ -238,7 +235,7 @@ void DataBlockIter::Prev() {
   prev_entries_idx_ = static_cast<int32_t>(prev_entries_.size()) - 1;
 }
 
-void DataBlockIter::Seek(const Slice& target) {
+void DataBlockIter::SeekImpl(const Slice& target) {
   Slice seek_key = target;
   PERF_TIMER_GUARD(block_seek_nanos);
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
@@ -247,12 +244,12 @@ void DataBlockIter::Seek(const Slice& target) {
   uint32_t index = 0;
   bool skip_linear_scan = false;
   bool ok = BinarySeek<DecodeKey>(seek_key, 0, num_restarts_ - 1, &index,
-                                  &skip_linear_scan, comparator_);
+                                  &skip_linear_scan);
 
   if (!ok) {
     return;
   }
-  FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(seek_key, index, skip_linear_scan, comparator_);
+  FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(seek_key, index, skip_linear_scan);
 }
 
 // Optimized Seek for point lookup for an internal key `target`
@@ -286,7 +283,7 @@ bool DataBlockIter::SeekForGetImpl(const Slice& target) {
 
   if (entry == kCollision) {
     // HashSeek not effective, falling back
-    Seek(target);
+    SeekImpl(target);
     return true;
   }
 
@@ -330,7 +327,7 @@ bool DataBlockIter::SeekForGetImpl(const Slice& target) {
     // TODO(fwu): check the left and write boundary of the restart interval
     // to avoid linear seek a target key that is out of range.
     if (!ParseNextDataKey<DecodeEntry>(limit) ||
-        comparator_->Compare(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey(), target) >= 0) {
+        CompareCurrentKey(target) >= 0) {
       // we stop at the first potential matching user key.
       break;
     }
@@ -355,18 +352,18 @@ bool DataBlockIter::SeekForGetImpl(const Slice& target) {
     return true;
   }
 
-  if (user_comparator_->Compare(raw_key_.GetUserKey(), target_user_key) != 0) {
+  if (ucmp_wrapper_.Compare(raw_key_.GetUserKey(), target_user_key) != 0) {
     // the key is not in this block and cannot be at the next block either.
     return false;
   }
 
   // Here we are conservative and only support a limited set of cases
-  ValueType value_type = ExtractValueType(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey());
+  ValueType value_type = ExtractValueType(raw_key_.GetInternalKey());
   if (value_type != ValueType::kTypeValue &&
       value_type != ValueType::kTypeDeletion &&
       value_type != ValueType::kTypeSingleDeletion &&
       value_type != ValueType::kTypeBlobIndex) {
-    Seek(target);
+    SeekImpl(target);
     return true;
   }
 
@@ -374,14 +371,14 @@ bool DataBlockIter::SeekForGetImpl(const Slice& target) {
   return true;
 }
 
-void IndexBlockIter::Seek(const Slice& target) {
+void IndexBlockIter::SeekImpl(const Slice& target) {
   TEST_SYNC_POINT("IndexBlockIter::Seek:0");
   PERF_TIMER_GUARD(block_seek_nanos);
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
     return;
   }
   Slice seek_key = target;
-  if (!key_includes_seq_) {
+  if (raw_key_.IsUserKey()) {
     seek_key = ExtractUserKey(target);
   }
   status_ = Status::OK();
@@ -403,19 +400,19 @@ void IndexBlockIter::Seek(const Slice& target) {
     skip_linear_scan = true;
   } else if (value_delta_encoded_) {
     ok = BinarySeek<DecodeKeyV4>(seek_key, 0, num_restarts_ - 1, &index,
-                                 &skip_linear_scan, comparator_);
+                                 &skip_linear_scan);
   } else {
     ok = BinarySeek<DecodeKey>(seek_key, 0, num_restarts_ - 1, &index,
-                               &skip_linear_scan, comparator_);
+                               &skip_linear_scan);
   }
 
   if (!ok) {
     return;
   }
-  FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(seek_key, index, skip_linear_scan, comparator_);
+  FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(seek_key, index, skip_linear_scan);
 }
 
-void DataBlockIter::SeekForPrev(const Slice& target) {
+void DataBlockIter::SeekForPrevImpl(const Slice& target) {
   PERF_TIMER_GUARD(block_seek_nanos);
   Slice seek_key = target;
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
@@ -424,24 +421,23 @@ void DataBlockIter::SeekForPrev(const Slice& target) {
   uint32_t index = 0;
   bool skip_linear_scan = false;
   bool ok = BinarySeek<DecodeKey>(seek_key, 0, num_restarts_ - 1, &index,
-                                  &skip_linear_scan, comparator_);
+                                  &skip_linear_scan);
 
   if (!ok) {
     return;
   }
-  FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(seek_key, index, skip_linear_scan, comparator_);
+  FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(seek_key, index, skip_linear_scan);
 
   if (!Valid()) {
-    SeekToLast();
+    SeekToLastImpl();
   } else {
-    while (Valid() &&
-           comparator_->Compare(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey(), seek_key) > 0) {
-      Prev();
+    while (Valid() && CompareCurrentKey(seek_key) > 0) {
+      PrevImpl();
     }
   }
 }
 
-void DataBlockIter::SeekToFirst() {
+void DataBlockIter::SeekToFirstImpl() {
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
     return;
   }
@@ -449,7 +445,7 @@ void DataBlockIter::SeekToFirst() {
   ParseNextDataKey<DecodeEntry>();
 }
 
-void DataBlockIter::SeekToFirstOrReport() {
+void DataBlockIter::SeekToFirstOrReportImpl() {
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
     return;
   }
@@ -457,7 +453,7 @@ void DataBlockIter::SeekToFirstOrReport() {
   ParseNextDataKey<CheckAndDecodeEntry>();
 }
 
-void IndexBlockIter::SeekToFirst() {
+void IndexBlockIter::SeekToFirstImpl() {
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
     return;
   }
@@ -466,7 +462,7 @@ void IndexBlockIter::SeekToFirst() {
   ParseNextIndexKey();
 }
 
-void DataBlockIter::SeekToLast() {
+void DataBlockIter::SeekToLastImpl() {
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
     return;
   }
@@ -476,7 +472,7 @@ void DataBlockIter::SeekToLast() {
   }
 }
 
-void IndexBlockIter::SeekToLast() {
+void IndexBlockIter::SeekToLastImpl() {
   if (data_ == nullptr) {  // Not init yet
     return;
   }
@@ -526,8 +522,6 @@ bool DataBlockIter::ParseNextDataKey(const char* limit) {
       // This key share `shared` bytes with prev key, we need to decode it
       raw_key_.TrimAppend(shared, p, non_shared);
     }
-    key_ = applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey();
-    key_pinned_ = applied_key_.IsKeyPinned();
 
 #ifndef NDEBUG
     if (global_seqno_ != kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber) {
@@ -590,8 +584,6 @@ bool IndexBlockIter::ParseNextIndexKey() {
     // This key share `shared` bytes with prev key, we need to decode it
     raw_key_.TrimAppend(shared, p, non_shared);
   }
-  key_ = applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey();
-  key_pinned_ = applied_key_.IsKeyPinned();
   value_ = Slice(p + non_shared, value_length);
   if (shared == 0) {
     while (restart_index_ + 1 < num_restarts_ &&
@@ -651,12 +643,12 @@ void IndexBlockIter::DecodeCurrentValue(uint32_t shared) {
 template <class TValue>
 void BlockIter<TValue>::FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(const Slice& target,
                                                uint32_t index,
-                                               bool skip_linear_scan,
-                                               const Comparator* comp) {
+                                               bool skip_linear_scan) {
   // SeekToRestartPoint() only does the lookup in the restart block. We need
-  // to follow it up with Next() to position the iterator at the restart key.
+  // to follow it up with NextImpl() to position the iterator at the restart
+  // key.
   SeekToRestartPoint(index);
-  Next();
+  NextImpl();
 
   if (!skip_linear_scan) {
     // Linear search (within restart block) for first key >= target
@@ -672,14 +664,14 @@ void BlockIter<TValue>::FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(const Slice& target,
       max_offset = port::kMaxUint32;
     }
     while (true) {
-      Next();
+      NextImpl();
       if (!Valid()) {
         break;
       }
       if (current_ == max_offset) {
-        assert(comp->Compare(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey(), target) > 0);
+        assert(CompareCurrentKey(target) > 0);
         break;
-      } else if (comp->Compare(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey(), target) >= 0) {
+      } else if (CompareCurrentKey(target) >= 0) {
         break;
       }
     }
@@ -698,8 +690,7 @@ template <class TValue>
 template <typename DecodeKeyFunc>
 bool BlockIter<TValue>::BinarySeek(const Slice& target, uint32_t left,
                                    uint32_t right, uint32_t* index,
-                                   bool* skip_linear_scan,
-                                   const Comparator* comp) {
+                                   bool* skip_linear_scan) {
   assert(left <= right);
   if (restarts_ == 0) {
     // SST files dedicated to range tombstones are written with index blocks
@@ -724,7 +715,7 @@ bool BlockIter<TValue>::BinarySeek(const Slice& target, uint32_t left,
     }
     Slice mid_key(key_ptr, non_shared);
     raw_key_.SetKey(mid_key, false /* copy */);
-    int cmp = comp->Compare(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey(), target);
+    int cmp = CompareCurrentKey(target);
     if (cmp < 0) {
       // Key at "mid" is smaller than "target". Therefore all
       // blocks before "mid" are uninteresting.
@@ -757,7 +748,7 @@ bool BlockIter<TValue>::BinarySeek(const Slice& target, uint32_t left,
     }
     Slice first_key(key_ptr, non_shared);
     raw_key_.SetKey(first_key, false /* copy */);
-    int cmp = comp->Compare(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey(), target);
+    int cmp = CompareCurrentKey(target);
     *skip_linear_scan = cmp >= 0;
   }
   return true;
@@ -780,7 +771,7 @@ int IndexBlockIter::CompareBlockKey(uint32_t block_index, const Slice& target) {
   }
   Slice block_key(key_ptr, non_shared);
   raw_key_.SetKey(block_key, false /* copy */);
-  return comparator_->Compare(applied_key_.UpdateAndGetKey(), target);
+  return CompareCurrentKey(target);
 }
 
 // Binary search in block_ids to find the first block
@@ -874,7 +865,7 @@ bool IndexBlockIter::PrefixSeek(const Slice& target, uint32_t* index,
   assert(prefix_index_);
   *prefix_may_exist = true;
   Slice seek_key = target;
-  if (!key_includes_seq_) {
+  if (raw_key_.IsUserKey()) {
     seek_key = ExtractUserKey(target);
   }
   uint32_t* block_ids = nullptr;
@@ -989,8 +980,7 @@ Block::Block(BlockContents&& contents, size_t read_amp_bytes_per_bit,
   }
 }
 
-DataBlockIter* Block::NewDataIterator(const Comparator* cmp,
-                                      const Comparator* ucmp,
+DataBlockIter* Block::NewDataIterator(const Comparator* ucmp,
                                       SequenceNumber global_seqno,
                                       DataBlockIter* iter, Statistics* stats,
                                       bool block_contents_pinned) {
@@ -1010,7 +1000,7 @@ DataBlockIter* Block::NewDataIterator(const Comparator* cmp,
     return ret_iter;
   } else {
     ret_iter->Initialize(
-        cmp, ucmp, data_, restart_offset_, num_restarts_, global_seqno,
+        ucmp, data_, restart_offset_, num_restarts_, global_seqno,
         read_amp_bitmap_.get(), block_contents_pinned,
         data_block_hash_index_.Valid() ? &data_block_hash_index_ : nullptr);
     if (read_amp_bitmap_) {
@@ -1025,10 +1015,10 @@ DataBlockIter* Block::NewDataIterator(const Comparator* cmp,
 }
 
 IndexBlockIter* Block::NewIndexIterator(
-    const Comparator* cmp, const Comparator* ucmp, SequenceNumber global_seqno,
-    IndexBlockIter* iter, Statistics* /*stats*/, bool total_order_seek,
-    bool have_first_key, bool key_includes_seq, bool value_is_full,
-    bool block_contents_pinned, BlockPrefixIndex* prefix_index) {
+    const Comparator* ucmp, SequenceNumber global_seqno, IndexBlockIter* iter,
+    Statistics* /*stats*/, bool total_order_seek, bool have_first_key,
+    bool key_includes_seq, bool value_is_full, bool block_contents_pinned,
+    BlockPrefixIndex* prefix_index) {
   IndexBlockIter* ret_iter;
   if (iter != nullptr) {
     ret_iter = iter;
@@ -1046,7 +1036,7 @@ IndexBlockIter* Block::NewIndexIterator(
   } else {
     BlockPrefixIndex* prefix_index_ptr =
         total_order_seek ? nullptr : prefix_index;
-    ret_iter->Initialize(cmp, ucmp, data_, restart_offset_, num_restarts_,
+    ret_iter->Initialize(ucmp, data_, restart_offset_, num_restarts_,
                          global_seqno, prefix_index_ptr, have_first_key,
                          key_includes_seq, value_is_full,
                          block_contents_pinned);
diff --git a/table/block_based/block.h b/table/block_based/block.h
index a7378949a..0da4393a8 100644
--- a/table/block_based/block.h
+++ b/table/block_based/block.h
@@ -168,8 +168,8 @@ class Block {
 
   BlockBasedTableOptions::DataBlockIndexType IndexType() const;
 
-  // If comparator is InternalKeyComparator, user_comparator is its user
-  // comparator; they are equal otherwise.
+  // ucmp is a raw (i.e., not wrapped by `UserComparatorWrapper`) user key
+  // comparator.
   //
   // If iter is null, return new Iterator
   // If iter is not null, update this one and return it as Iterator*
@@ -187,13 +187,15 @@ class Block {
   // NOTE: for the hash based lookup, if a key prefix doesn't match any key,
   // the iterator will simply be set as "invalid", rather than returning
   // the key that is just pass the target key.
-  DataBlockIter* NewDataIterator(const Comparator* comparator,
-                                 const Comparator* user_comparator,
+  DataBlockIter* NewDataIterator(const Comparator* ucmp,
                                  SequenceNumber global_seqno,
                                  DataBlockIter* iter = nullptr,
                                  Statistics* stats = nullptr,
                                  bool block_contents_pinned = false);
 
+  // ucmp is a raw (i.e., not wrapped by `UserComparatorWrapper`) user key
+  // comparator.
+  //
   // key_includes_seq, default true, means that the keys are in internal key
   // format.
   // value_is_full, default true, means that no delta encoding is
@@ -206,8 +208,7 @@ class Block {
   // first_internal_key. It affects data serialization format, so the same value
   // have_first_key must be used when writing and reading index.
   // It is determined by IndexType property of the table.
-  IndexBlockIter* NewIndexIterator(const Comparator* comparator,
-                                   const Comparator* user_comparator,
+  IndexBlockIter* NewIndexIterator(const Comparator* ucmp,
                                    SequenceNumber global_seqno,
                                    IndexBlockIter* iter, Statistics* stats,
                                    bool total_order_seek, bool have_first_key,
@@ -228,61 +229,36 @@ class Block {
   DataBlockHashIndex data_block_hash_index_;
 };
 
-// A GlobalSeqnoAppliedKey exposes a key with global sequence number applied
-// if configured with `global_seqno != kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber`. It may
-// hold a user key or an internal key since `format_version>=3` index blocks
-// contain user keys. In case it holds user keys, it must be configured with
-// `global_seqno == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber`.
-class GlobalSeqnoAppliedKey {
- public:
-  void Initialize(IterKey* key, SequenceNumber global_seqno) {
-    key_ = key;
-    global_seqno_ = global_seqno;
-#ifndef NDEBUG
-    init_ = true;
-#endif  // NDEBUG
-  }
-
-  Slice UpdateAndGetKey() {
-    assert(init_);
-    if (global_seqno_ == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber) {
-      return key_->GetKey();
-    }
-    ParsedInternalKey parsed(Slice(), 0, kTypeValue);
-    if (!ParseInternalKey(key_->GetInternalKey(), &parsed)) {
-      assert(false);  // error not handled in optimized builds
-      return Slice();
-    }
-    parsed.sequence = global_seqno_;
-    scratch_.SetInternalKey(parsed);
-    return scratch_.GetInternalKey();
-  }
-
-  bool IsKeyPinned() const {
-    return global_seqno_ == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber && key_->IsKeyPinned();
-  }
-
- private:
-  const IterKey* key_;
-  SequenceNumber global_seqno_;
-  IterKey scratch_;
-#ifndef NDEBUG
-  bool init_ = false;
-#endif  // NDEBUG
-};
-
+// A `BlockIter` iterates over the entries in a `Block`'s data buffer. The
+// format of this data buffer is an uncompressed, sorted sequence of key-value
+// pairs (see `Block` API for more details).
+//
+// Notably, the keys may either be in internal key format or user key format.
+// Subclasses are responsible for configuring the key format.
+//
+// `BlockIter` intends to provide final overrides for all of
+// `InternalIteratorBase` functions that can move the iterator. It does
+// this to guarantee `UpdateKey()` is called exactly once after each key
+// movement potentially visible to users. In this step, the key is prepared
+// (e.g., serialized if global seqno is in effect) so it can be returned
+// immediately when the user asks for it via calling `key() const`.
+//
+// For its subclasses, it provides protected variants of the above-mentioned
+// final-overridden methods. They are named with the "Impl" suffix, e.g.,
+// `Seek()` logic would be implemented by subclasses in `SeekImpl()`. These
+// "Impl" functions are responsible for positioning `raw_key_` but not
+// invoking `UpdateKey()`.
 template <class TValue>
 class BlockIter : public InternalIteratorBase<TValue> {
  public:
-  void InitializeBase(const Comparator* comparator, const char* data,
+  void InitializeBase(const Comparator* ucmp, const char* data,
                       uint32_t restarts, uint32_t num_restarts,
                       SequenceNumber global_seqno, bool block_contents_pinned) {
     assert(data_ == nullptr);  // Ensure it is called only once
     assert(num_restarts > 0);  // Ensure the param is valid
 
-    applied_key_.Initialize(&raw_key_, global_seqno);
-
-    comparator_ = comparator;
+    ucmp_wrapper_ = UserComparatorWrapper(ucmp);
+    icmp_ = InternalKeyComparator(ucmp, false /* named */);
     data_ = data;
     restarts_ = restarts;
     num_restarts_ = num_restarts;
@@ -309,6 +285,43 @@ class BlockIter : public InternalIteratorBase<TValue> {
   }
 
   bool Valid() const override { return current_ < restarts_; }
+
+  virtual void SeekToFirst() override final {
+    SeekToFirstImpl();
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
+
+  virtual void SeekToLast() override final {
+    SeekToLastImpl();
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
+
+  virtual void Seek(const Slice& target) override final {
+    SeekImpl(target);
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
+
+  virtual void SeekForPrev(const Slice& target) override final {
+    SeekForPrevImpl(target);
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
+
+  virtual void Next() override final {
+    NextImpl();
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
+
+  virtual bool NextAndGetResult(IterateResult* result) override final {
+    // This does not need to call `UpdateKey()` as the parent class only has
+    // access to the `UpdateKey()`-invoking functions.
+    return InternalIteratorBase<TValue>::NextAndGetResult(result);
+  }
+
+  virtual void Prev() override final {
+    PrevImpl();
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
+
   Status status() const override { return status_; }
   Slice key() const override {
     assert(Valid());
@@ -343,12 +356,10 @@ class BlockIter : public InternalIteratorBase<TValue> {
 
   Cache::Handle* cache_handle() { return cache_handle_; }
 
-  virtual void Next() override = 0;
-
  protected:
-  // Note: The type could be changed to InternalKeyComparator but we see a weird
-  // performance drop by that.
-  const Comparator* comparator_;
+  UserComparatorWrapper ucmp_wrapper_;
+  InternalKeyComparator icmp_;
+
   const char* data_;       // underlying block contents
   uint32_t num_restarts_;  // Number of uint32_t entries in restart array
 
@@ -359,13 +370,12 @@ class BlockIter : public InternalIteratorBase<TValue> {
   uint32_t current_;
   // Raw key from block.
   IterKey raw_key_;
-  // raw_key_ with global seqno applied if necessary. Use this one for
-  // comparisons.
-  GlobalSeqnoAppliedKey applied_key_;
-  // Key to be exposed to users.
-  Slice key_;
+  // Buffer for key data when global seqno assignment is enabled.
+  IterKey key_buf_;
   Slice value_;
   Status status_;
+  // Key to be exposed to users.
+  Slice key_;
   bool key_pinned_;
   // Whether the block data is guaranteed to outlive this iterator, and
   // as long as the cleanup functions are transferred to another class,
@@ -373,6 +383,50 @@ class BlockIter : public InternalIteratorBase<TValue> {
   bool block_contents_pinned_;
   SequenceNumber global_seqno_;
 
+  virtual void SeekToFirstImpl() = 0;
+  virtual void SeekToLastImpl() = 0;
+  virtual void SeekImpl(const Slice& target) = 0;
+  virtual void SeekForPrevImpl(const Slice& target) = 0;
+  virtual void NextImpl() = 0;
+  virtual void PrevImpl() = 0;
+
+  // Must be called every time a key is found that needs to be returned to user,
+  // and may be called when no key is found (as a no-op). Updates `key_`,
+  // `key_buf_`, and `key_pinned_` with info about the found key.
+  void UpdateKey() {
+    key_buf_.Clear();
+    if (!Valid()) {
+      return;
+    }
+    if (raw_key_.IsUserKey()) {
+      assert(global_seqno_ == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
+      key_ = raw_key_.GetUserKey();
+      key_pinned_ = raw_key_.IsKeyPinned();
+    } else if (global_seqno_ == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber) {
+      key_ = raw_key_.GetInternalKey();
+      key_pinned_ = raw_key_.IsKeyPinned();
+    } else {
+      key_buf_.SetInternalKey(raw_key_.GetUserKey(), global_seqno_,
+                              ExtractValueType(raw_key_.GetInternalKey()));
+      key_ = key_buf_.GetInternalKey();
+      key_pinned_ = false;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Returns the result of `Comparator::Compare()`, where the appropriate
+  // comparator is used for the block contents, the LHS argument is the current
+  // key with global seqno applied, and the RHS argument is `other`.
+  int CompareCurrentKey(const Slice& other) {
+    if (raw_key_.IsUserKey()) {
+      assert(global_seqno_ == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
+      return ucmp_wrapper_.Compare(raw_key_.GetUserKey(), other);
+    } else if (global_seqno_ == kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber) {
+      return icmp_.Compare(raw_key_.GetInternalKey(), other);
+    }
+    return icmp_.Compare(raw_key_.GetInternalKey(), global_seqno_, other,
+                         kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
+  }
+
  private:
   // Store the cache handle, if the block is cached. We need this since the
   // only other place the handle is stored is as an argument to the Cleanable
@@ -408,37 +462,31 @@ class BlockIter : public InternalIteratorBase<TValue> {
  protected:
   template <typename DecodeKeyFunc>
   inline bool BinarySeek(const Slice& target, uint32_t left, uint32_t right,
-                         uint32_t* index, bool* is_index_key_result,
-                         const Comparator* comp);
+                         uint32_t* index, bool* is_index_key_result);
 
   void FindKeyAfterBinarySeek(const Slice& target, uint32_t index,
-                              bool is_index_key_result, const Comparator* comp);
+                              bool is_index_key_result);
 };
 
 class DataBlockIter final : public BlockIter<Slice> {
  public:
   DataBlockIter()
       : BlockIter(), read_amp_bitmap_(nullptr), last_bitmap_offset_(0) {}
-  DataBlockIter(const Comparator* comparator, const Comparator* user_comparator,
-                const char* data, uint32_t restarts, uint32_t num_restarts,
-                SequenceNumber global_seqno,
+  DataBlockIter(const Comparator* ucmp, const char* data, uint32_t restarts,
+                uint32_t num_restarts, SequenceNumber global_seqno,
                 BlockReadAmpBitmap* read_amp_bitmap, bool block_contents_pinned,
                 DataBlockHashIndex* data_block_hash_index)
       : DataBlockIter() {
-    Initialize(comparator, user_comparator, data, restarts, num_restarts,
-               global_seqno, read_amp_bitmap, block_contents_pinned,
-               data_block_hash_index);
-  }
-  void Initialize(const Comparator* comparator,
-                  const Comparator* user_comparator, const char* data,
-                  uint32_t restarts, uint32_t num_restarts,
-                  SequenceNumber global_seqno,
+    Initialize(ucmp, data, restarts, num_restarts, global_seqno,
+               read_amp_bitmap, block_contents_pinned, data_block_hash_index);
+  }
+  void Initialize(const Comparator* ucmp, const char* data, uint32_t restarts,
+                  uint32_t num_restarts, SequenceNumber global_seqno,
                   BlockReadAmpBitmap* read_amp_bitmap,
                   bool block_contents_pinned,
                   DataBlockHashIndex* data_block_hash_index) {
-    InitializeBase(comparator, data, restarts, num_restarts, global_seqno,
+    InitializeBase(ucmp, data, restarts, num_restarts, global_seqno,
                    block_contents_pinned);
-    user_comparator_ = user_comparator;
     raw_key_.SetIsUserKey(false);
     read_amp_bitmap_ = read_amp_bitmap;
     last_bitmap_offset_ = current_ + 1;
@@ -456,36 +504,32 @@ class DataBlockIter final : public BlockIter<Slice> {
     return value_;
   }
 
-  void Seek(const Slice& target) override;
-
   inline bool SeekForGet(const Slice& target) {
     if (!data_block_hash_index_) {
-      Seek(target);
+      SeekImpl(target);
+      UpdateKey();
       return true;
     }
-
-    return SeekForGetImpl(target);
+    bool res = SeekForGetImpl(target);
+    UpdateKey();
+    return res;
   }
 
-  void SeekForPrev(const Slice& target) override;
-
-  void Prev() override;
-
-  void Next() final override;
-
   // Try to advance to the next entry in the block. If there is data corruption
   // or error, report it to the caller instead of aborting the process. May
   // incur higher CPU overhead because we need to perform check on every entry.
-  void NextOrReport();
-
-  void SeekToFirst() override;
+  void NextOrReport() {
+    NextOrReportImpl();
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
 
   // Try to seek to the first entry in the block. If there is data corruption
   // or error, report it to caller instead of aborting the process. May incur
   // higher CPU overhead because we need to perform check on every entry.
-  void SeekToFirstOrReport();
-
-  void SeekToLast() override;
+  void SeekToFirstOrReport() {
+    SeekToFirstOrReportImpl();
+    UpdateKey();
+  }
 
   void Invalidate(Status s) {
     InvalidateBase(s);
@@ -495,6 +539,14 @@ class DataBlockIter final : public BlockIter<Slice> {
     prev_entries_idx_ = -1;
   }
 
+ protected:
+  virtual void SeekToFirstImpl() override;
+  virtual void SeekToLastImpl() override;
+  virtual void SeekImpl(const Slice& target) override;
+  virtual void SeekForPrevImpl(const Slice& target) override;
+  virtual void NextImpl() override;
+  virtual void PrevImpl() override;
+
  private:
   // read-amp bitmap
   BlockReadAmpBitmap* read_amp_bitmap_;
@@ -525,12 +577,13 @@ class DataBlockIter final : public BlockIter<Slice> {
   int32_t prev_entries_idx_ = -1;
 
   DataBlockHashIndex* data_block_hash_index_;
-  const Comparator* user_comparator_;
 
   template <typename DecodeEntryFunc>
   inline bool ParseNextDataKey(const char* limit = nullptr);
 
   bool SeekForGetImpl(const Slice& target);
+  void NextOrReportImpl();
+  void SeekToFirstOrReportImpl();
 };
 
 class IndexBlockIter final : public BlockIter<IndexValue> {
@@ -541,22 +594,14 @@ class IndexBlockIter final : public BlockIter<IndexValue> {
   // format.
   // value_is_full, default true, means that no delta encoding is
   // applied to values.
-  void Initialize(const Comparator* comparator,
-                  const Comparator* user_comparator, const char* data,
-                  uint32_t restarts, uint32_t num_restarts,
-                  SequenceNumber global_seqno, BlockPrefixIndex* prefix_index,
-                  bool have_first_key, bool key_includes_seq,
-                  bool value_is_full, bool block_contents_pinned) {
-    if (!key_includes_seq) {
-      user_comparator_wrapper_ = std::unique_ptr<UserComparatorWrapper>(
-          new UserComparatorWrapper(user_comparator));
-    }
-    InitializeBase(
-        key_includes_seq ? comparator : user_comparator_wrapper_.get(), data,
-        restarts, num_restarts, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber,
-        block_contents_pinned);
-    key_includes_seq_ = key_includes_seq;
-    raw_key_.SetIsUserKey(!key_includes_seq_);
+  void Initialize(const Comparator* ucmp, const char* data, uint32_t restarts,
+                  uint32_t num_restarts, SequenceNumber global_seqno,
+                  BlockPrefixIndex* prefix_index, bool have_first_key,
+                  bool key_includes_seq, bool value_is_full,
+                  bool block_contents_pinned) {
+    InitializeBase(ucmp, data, restarts, num_restarts,
+                   kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, block_contents_pinned);
+    raw_key_.SetIsUserKey(!key_includes_seq);
     prefix_index_ = prefix_index;
     value_delta_encoded_ = !value_is_full;
     have_first_key_ = have_first_key;
@@ -568,10 +613,8 @@ class IndexBlockIter final : public BlockIter<IndexValue> {
   }
 
   Slice user_key() const override {
-    if (key_includes_seq_) {
-      return ExtractUserKey(key());
-    }
-    return key();
+    assert(Valid());
+    return raw_key_.GetUserKey();
   }
 
   IndexValue value() const override {
@@ -588,6 +631,13 @@ class IndexBlockIter final : public BlockIter<IndexValue> {
     }
   }
 
+  void Invalidate(Status s) { InvalidateBase(s); }
+
+  bool IsValuePinned() const override {
+    return global_seqno_state_ != nullptr ? false : BlockIter::IsValuePinned();
+  }
+
+ protected:
   // IndexBlockIter follows a different contract for prefix iterator
   // from data iterators.
   // If prefix of the seek key `target` exists in the file, it must
@@ -595,9 +645,9 @@ class IndexBlockIter final : public BlockIter<IndexValue> {
   // If the prefix of `target` doesn't exist in the file, it can either
   // return the result of total order seek, or set both of Valid() = false
   // and status() = NotFound().
-  void Seek(const Slice& target) override;
+  void SeekImpl(const Slice& target) override;
 
-  void SeekForPrev(const Slice&) override {
+  void SeekForPrevImpl(const Slice&) override {
     assert(false);
     current_ = restarts_;
     restart_index_ = num_restarts_;
@@ -608,24 +658,15 @@ class IndexBlockIter final : public BlockIter<IndexValue> {
     value_.clear();
   }
 
-  void Prev() override;
+  void PrevImpl() override;
 
-  void Next() override;
+  void NextImpl() override;
 
-  void SeekToFirst() override;
+  void SeekToFirstImpl() override;
 
-  void SeekToLast() override;
-
-  void Invalidate(Status s) { InvalidateBase(s); }
-
-  bool IsValuePinned() const override {
-    return global_seqno_state_ != nullptr ? false : BlockIter::IsValuePinned();
-  }
+  void SeekToLastImpl() override;
 
  private:
-  std::unique_ptr<UserComparatorWrapper> user_comparator_wrapper_;
-  // Key is in InternalKey format
-  bool key_includes_seq_;
   bool value_delta_encoded_;
   bool have_first_key_;  // value includes first_internal_key
   BlockPrefixIndex* prefix_index_;
diff --git a/table/block_based/block_based_table_reader.cc b/table/block_based/block_based_table_reader.cc
index a3b9092d5..ddbec3560 100644
--- a/table/block_based/block_based_table_reader.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/block_based_table_reader.cc
@@ -1125,8 +1125,7 @@ Status BlockBasedTable::ReadMetaIndexBlock(
   *metaindex_block = std::move(metaindex);
   // meta block uses bytewise comparator.
   iter->reset(metaindex_block->get()->NewDataIterator(
-      BytewiseComparator(), BytewiseComparator(),
-      kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
+      BytewiseComparator(), kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
   return Status::OK();
 }
 
@@ -1381,15 +1380,14 @@ InternalIteratorBase<IndexValue>* BlockBasedTable::NewIndexIterator(
                                          lookup_context);
 }
 
-
 template <>
 DataBlockIter* BlockBasedTable::InitBlockIterator<DataBlockIter>(
     const Rep* rep, Block* block, BlockType block_type,
     DataBlockIter* input_iter, bool block_contents_pinned) {
-  return block->NewDataIterator(
-      &rep->internal_comparator, rep->internal_comparator.user_comparator(),
-      rep->get_global_seqno(block_type), input_iter, rep->ioptions.statistics,
-      block_contents_pinned);
+  return block->NewDataIterator(rep->internal_comparator.user_comparator(),
+                                rep->get_global_seqno(block_type), input_iter,
+                                rep->ioptions.statistics,
+                                block_contents_pinned);
 }
 
 template <>
@@ -1397,14 +1395,13 @@ IndexBlockIter* BlockBasedTable::InitBlockIterator<IndexBlockIter>(
     const Rep* rep, Block* block, BlockType block_type,
     IndexBlockIter* input_iter, bool block_contents_pinned) {
   return block->NewIndexIterator(
-      &rep->internal_comparator, rep->internal_comparator.user_comparator(),
+      rep->internal_comparator.user_comparator(),
       rep->get_global_seqno(block_type), input_iter, rep->ioptions.statistics,
       /* total_order_seek */ true, rep->index_has_first_key,
       rep->index_key_includes_seq, rep->index_value_is_full,
       block_contents_pinned);
 }
 
-
 // If contents is nullptr, this function looks up the block caches for the
 // data block referenced by handle, and read the block from disk if necessary.
 // If contents is non-null, it skips the cache lookup and disk read, since
@@ -1945,7 +1942,7 @@ BlockBasedTable::PartitionedIndexIteratorState::NewSecondaryIterator(
     // We don't return pinned data from index blocks, so no need
     // to set `block_contents_pinned`.
     return block->second.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-        &rep->internal_comparator, rep->internal_comparator.user_comparator(),
+        rep->internal_comparator.user_comparator(),
         rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kIndex), nullptr, kNullStats, true,
         rep->index_has_first_key, rep->index_key_includes_seq,
         rep->index_value_is_full);
diff --git a/table/block_based/block_test.cc b/table/block_based/block_test.cc
index 9776f59e5..7521c1515 100644
--- a/table/block_based/block_test.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/block_test.cc
@@ -34,8 +34,9 @@ static std::string RandomString(Random *rnd, int len) {
   test::RandomString(rnd, len, &r);
   return r;
 }
-std::string GenerateKey(int primary_key, int secondary_key, int padding_size,
-                        Random *rnd) {
+
+std::string GenerateInternalKey(int primary_key, int secondary_key,
+                                int padding_size, Random *rnd) {
   char buf[50];
   char *p = &buf[0];
   snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "%6d%4d", primary_key, secondary_key);
@@ -43,6 +44,7 @@ std::string GenerateKey(int primary_key, int secondary_key, int padding_size,
   if (padding_size) {
     k += RandomString(rnd, padding_size);
   }
+  AppendInternalKeyFooter(&k, 0 /* seqno */, kTypeValue);
 
   return k;
 }
@@ -61,7 +63,8 @@ void GenerateRandomKVs(std::vector<std::string> *keys,
   for (int i = from; i < from + len; i += step) {
     // generating keys that shares the prefix
     for (int j = 0; j < keys_share_prefix; ++j) {
-      keys->emplace_back(GenerateKey(i, j, padding_size, &rnd));
+      // `DataBlockIter` assumes it reads only internal keys.
+      keys->emplace_back(GenerateInternalKey(i, j, padding_size, &rnd));
 
       // 100 bytes values
       values->emplace_back(RandomString(&rnd, 100));
@@ -97,8 +100,8 @@ TEST_F(BlockTest, SimpleTest) {
 
   // read contents of block sequentially
   int count = 0;
-  InternalIterator *iter = reader.NewDataIterator(
-      options.comparator, options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
+  InternalIterator *iter =
+      reader.NewDataIterator(options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
   for (iter->SeekToFirst(); iter->Valid(); count++, iter->Next()) {
     // read kv from block
     Slice k = iter->key();
@@ -111,8 +114,8 @@ TEST_F(BlockTest, SimpleTest) {
   delete iter;
 
   // read block contents randomly
-  iter = reader.NewDataIterator(options.comparator, options.comparator,
-                                kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
+  iter =
+      reader.NewDataIterator(options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
   for (int i = 0; i < num_records; i++) {
     // find a random key in the lookaside array
     int index = rnd.Uniform(num_records);
@@ -158,9 +161,8 @@ void CheckBlockContents(BlockContents contents, const int max_key,
   std::unique_ptr<const SliceTransform> prefix_extractor(
       NewFixedPrefixTransform(prefix_size));
 
-  std::unique_ptr<InternalIterator> regular_iter(
-      reader2.NewDataIterator(BytewiseComparator(), BytewiseComparator(),
-                              kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
+  std::unique_ptr<InternalIterator> regular_iter(reader2.NewDataIterator(
+      BytewiseComparator(), kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
 
   // Seek existent keys
   for (size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); i++) {
@@ -177,7 +179,8 @@ void CheckBlockContents(BlockContents contents, const int max_key,
   // simply be set as invalid; whereas the binary search based iterator will
   // return the one that is closest.
   for (int i = 1; i < max_key - 1; i += 2) {
-    auto key = GenerateKey(i, 0, 0, nullptr);
+    // `DataBlockIter` assumes its APIs receive only internal keys.
+    auto key = GenerateInternalKey(i, 0, 0, nullptr);
     regular_iter->Seek(key);
     ASSERT_TRUE(regular_iter->Valid());
   }
@@ -382,8 +385,7 @@ TEST_F(BlockTest, BlockWithReadAmpBitmap) {
     // read contents of block sequentially
     size_t read_bytes = 0;
     DataBlockIter *iter = reader.NewDataIterator(
-        options.comparator, options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber,
-        nullptr, stats.get());
+        options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, nullptr, stats.get());
     for (iter->SeekToFirst(); iter->Valid(); iter->Next()) {
       iter->value();
       read_bytes += iter->TEST_CurrentEntrySize();
@@ -414,8 +416,7 @@ TEST_F(BlockTest, BlockWithReadAmpBitmap) {
 
     size_t read_bytes = 0;
     DataBlockIter *iter = reader.NewDataIterator(
-        options.comparator, options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber,
-        nullptr, stats.get());
+        options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, nullptr, stats.get());
     for (int i = 0; i < num_records; i++) {
       Slice k(keys[i]);
 
@@ -449,8 +450,7 @@ TEST_F(BlockTest, BlockWithReadAmpBitmap) {
 
     size_t read_bytes = 0;
     DataBlockIter *iter = reader.NewDataIterator(
-        options.comparator, options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber,
-        nullptr, stats.get());
+        options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, nullptr, stats.get());
     std::unordered_set<int> read_keys;
     for (int i = 0; i < num_records; i++) {
       int index = rnd.Uniform(num_records);
@@ -574,9 +574,8 @@ TEST_P(IndexBlockTest, IndexValueEncodingTest) {
   Statistics *kNullStats = nullptr;
   // read contents of block sequentially
   InternalIteratorBase<IndexValue> *iter = reader.NewIndexIterator(
-      options.comparator, options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber,
-      kNullIter, kNullStats, kTotalOrderSeek, includeFirstKey(), kIncludesSeq,
-      kValueIsFull);
+      options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, kNullIter, kNullStats,
+      kTotalOrderSeek, includeFirstKey(), kIncludesSeq, kValueIsFull);
   iter->SeekToFirst();
   for (int index = 0; index < num_records; ++index) {
     ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
@@ -595,10 +594,9 @@ TEST_P(IndexBlockTest, IndexValueEncodingTest) {
   delete iter;
 
   // read block contents randomly
-  iter = reader.NewIndexIterator(options.comparator, options.comparator,
-                                 kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, kNullIter,
-                                 kNullStats, kTotalOrderSeek, includeFirstKey(),
-                                 kIncludesSeq, kValueIsFull);
+  iter = reader.NewIndexIterator(
+      options.comparator, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, kNullIter, kNullStats,
+      kTotalOrderSeek, includeFirstKey(), kIncludesSeq, kValueIsFull);
   for (int i = 0; i < num_records * 2; i++) {
     // find a random key in the lookaside array
     int index = rnd.Uniform(num_records);
diff --git a/table/block_based/data_block_hash_index_test.cc b/table/block_based/data_block_hash_index_test.cc
index 97971cd5b..409a5bdc2 100644
--- a/table/block_based/data_block_hash_index_test.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/data_block_hash_index_test.cc
@@ -391,7 +391,7 @@ TEST(DataBlockHashIndex, BlockTestSingleKey) {
   Block reader(std::move(contents));
 
   const InternalKeyComparator icmp(BytewiseComparator());
-  auto iter = reader.NewDataIterator(&icmp, icmp.user_comparator(),
+  auto iter = reader.NewDataIterator(icmp.user_comparator(),
                                      kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
   bool may_exist;
   // search in block for the key just inserted
@@ -475,7 +475,7 @@ TEST(DataBlockHashIndex, BlockTestLarge) {
 
   // random seek existent keys
   for (int i = 0; i < num_records; i++) {
-    auto iter = reader.NewDataIterator(&icmp, icmp.user_comparator(),
+    auto iter = reader.NewDataIterator(icmp.user_comparator(),
                                        kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
     // find a random key in the lookaside array
     int index = rnd.Uniform(num_records);
@@ -513,7 +513,7 @@ TEST(DataBlockHashIndex, BlockTestLarge) {
   //     C         true          false
 
   for (int i = 0; i < num_records; i++) {
-    auto iter = reader.NewDataIterator(&icmp, icmp.user_comparator(),
+    auto iter = reader.NewDataIterator(icmp.user_comparator(),
                                        kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
     // find a random key in the lookaside array
     int index = rnd.Uniform(num_records);
diff --git a/table/block_based/hash_index_reader.cc b/table/block_based/hash_index_reader.cc
index d15cbd217..7a281edbf 100644
--- a/table/block_based/hash_index_reader.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/hash_index_reader.cc
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ InternalIteratorBase<IndexValue>* HashIndexReader::NewIterator(
   // We don't return pinned data from index blocks, so no need
   // to set `block_contents_pinned`.
   auto it = index_block.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-      internal_comparator(), internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
+      internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
       rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kIndex), iter, kNullStats,
       total_order_seek, index_has_first_key(), index_key_includes_seq(),
       index_value_is_full(), false /* block_contents_pinned */,
diff --git a/table/block_based/partitioned_filter_block.cc b/table/block_based/partitioned_filter_block.cc
index bdf9250db..dc25abbea 100644
--- a/table/block_based/partitioned_filter_block.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/partitioned_filter_block.cc
@@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ BlockHandle PartitionedFilterBlockReader::GetFilterPartitionHandle(
   const InternalKeyComparator* const comparator = internal_comparator();
   Statistics* kNullStats = nullptr;
   filter_block.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-      comparator, comparator->user_comparator(),
+      comparator->user_comparator(),
       table()->get_rep()->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kFilter), &iter,
       kNullStats, true /* total_order_seek */, false /* have_first_key */,
       index_key_includes_seq(), index_value_is_full());
@@ -441,10 +441,10 @@ void PartitionedFilterBlockReader::CacheDependencies(const ReadOptions& ro,
   const InternalKeyComparator* const comparator = internal_comparator();
   Statistics* kNullStats = nullptr;
   filter_block.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-      comparator, comparator->user_comparator(),
-      rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kFilter), &biter, kNullStats,
-      true /* total_order_seek */, false /* have_first_key */,
-      index_key_includes_seq(), index_value_is_full());
+      comparator->user_comparator(), rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kFilter),
+      &biter, kNullStats, true /* total_order_seek */,
+      false /* have_first_key */, index_key_includes_seq(),
+      index_value_is_full());
   // Index partitions are assumed to be consecuitive. Prefetch them all.
   // Read the first block offset
   biter.SeekToFirst();
diff --git a/table/block_based/partitioned_index_reader.cc b/table/block_based/partitioned_index_reader.cc
index f8bb9562f..e8cfd0cf6 100644
--- a/table/block_based/partitioned_index_reader.cc
+++ b/table/block_based/partitioned_index_reader.cc
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ InternalIteratorBase<IndexValue>* PartitionIndexReader::NewIterator(
         new BlockBasedTable::PartitionedIndexIteratorState(table(),
                                                            &partition_map_),
         index_block.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-            internal_comparator(), internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
+            internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
             rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kIndex), nullptr, kNullStats, true,
             index_has_first_key(), index_key_includes_seq(),
             index_value_is_full()));
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ InternalIteratorBase<IndexValue>* PartitionIndexReader::NewIterator(
     // to set `block_contents_pinned`.
     std::unique_ptr<InternalIteratorBase<IndexValue>> index_iter(
         index_block.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-            internal_comparator(), internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
+            internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
             rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kIndex), nullptr, kNullStats, true,
             index_has_first_key(), index_key_includes_seq(),
             index_value_is_full()));
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ void PartitionIndexReader::CacheDependencies(const ReadOptions& ro, bool pin) {
   // We don't return pinned data from index blocks, so no need
   // to set `block_contents_pinned`.
   index_block.GetValue()->NewIndexIterator(
-      internal_comparator(), internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
+      internal_comparator()->user_comparator(),
       rep->get_global_seqno(BlockType::kIndex), &biter, kNullStats, true,
       index_has_first_key(), index_key_includes_seq(), index_value_is_full());
   // Index partitions are assumed to be consecuitive. Prefetch them all.
diff --git a/table/meta_blocks.cc b/table/meta_blocks.cc
index 21c4c1fb0..acc9c80a8 100644
--- a/table/meta_blocks.cc
+++ b/table/meta_blocks.cc
@@ -231,7 +231,7 @@ Status ReadProperties(const ReadOptions& read_options,
 
   Block properties_block(std::move(block_contents));
   DataBlockIter iter;
-  properties_block.NewDataIterator(BytewiseComparator(), BytewiseComparator(),
+  properties_block.NewDataIterator(BytewiseComparator(),
                                    kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber, &iter);
 
   auto new_table_properties = new TableProperties();
@@ -395,8 +395,7 @@ Status ReadTableProperties(RandomAccessFileReader* file, uint64_t file_size,
   // are to compress it.
   Block metaindex_block(std::move(metaindex_contents));
   std::unique_ptr<InternalIterator> meta_iter(metaindex_block.NewDataIterator(
-      BytewiseComparator(), BytewiseComparator(),
-      kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
+      BytewiseComparator(), kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
 
   // -- Read property block
   bool found_properties_block = true;
@@ -468,8 +467,7 @@ Status FindMetaBlock(RandomAccessFileReader* file, uint64_t file_size,
 
   std::unique_ptr<InternalIterator> meta_iter;
   meta_iter.reset(metaindex_block.NewDataIterator(
-      BytewiseComparator(), BytewiseComparator(),
-      kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
+      BytewiseComparator(), kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
 
   return FindMetaBlock(meta_iter.get(), meta_block_name, block_handle);
 }
@@ -514,8 +512,7 @@ Status ReadMetaBlock(RandomAccessFileReader* file,
 
   std::unique_ptr<InternalIterator> meta_iter;
   meta_iter.reset(metaindex_block.NewDataIterator(
-      BytewiseComparator(), BytewiseComparator(),
-      kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
+      BytewiseComparator(), kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
 
   BlockHandle block_handle;
   status = FindMetaBlock(meta_iter.get(), meta_block_name, &block_handle);
diff --git a/table/table_test.cc b/table/table_test.cc
index b77845ce5..7bc53a584 100644
--- a/table/table_test.cc
+++ b/table/table_test.cc
@@ -211,47 +211,6 @@ class Constructor {
   stl_wrappers::KVMap data_;
 };
 
-class BlockConstructor: public Constructor {
- public:
-  explicit BlockConstructor(const Comparator* cmp)
-      : Constructor(cmp),
-        comparator_(cmp),
-        block_(nullptr) { }
-  ~BlockConstructor() override { delete block_; }
-  Status FinishImpl(const Options& /*options*/,
-                    const ImmutableCFOptions& /*ioptions*/,
-                    const MutableCFOptions& /*moptions*/,
-                    const BlockBasedTableOptions& table_options,
-                    const InternalKeyComparator& /*internal_comparator*/,
-                    const stl_wrappers::KVMap& kv_map) override {
-    delete block_;
-    block_ = nullptr;
-    BlockBuilder builder(table_options.block_restart_interval);
-
-    for (const auto& kv : kv_map) {
-      builder.Add(kv.first, kv.second);
-    }
-    // Open the block
-    data_ = builder.Finish().ToString();
-    BlockContents contents;
-    contents.data = data_;
-    block_ = new Block(std::move(contents));
-    return Status::OK();
-  }
-  InternalIterator* NewIterator(
-      const SliceTransform* /*prefix_extractor*/) const override {
-    return block_->NewDataIterator(comparator_, comparator_,
-                                   kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber);
-  }
-
- private:
-  const Comparator* comparator_;
-  std::string data_;
-  Block* block_;
-
-  BlockConstructor();
-};
-
 // A helper class that converts internal format keys into user keys
 class KeyConvertingIterator : public InternalIterator {
  public:
@@ -309,7 +268,56 @@ class KeyConvertingIterator : public InternalIterator {
   void operator=(const KeyConvertingIterator&);
 };
 
-class TableConstructor: public Constructor {
+// `BlockConstructor` APIs always accept/return user keys.
+class BlockConstructor : public Constructor {
+ public:
+  explicit BlockConstructor(const Comparator* cmp)
+      : Constructor(cmp), comparator_(cmp), block_(nullptr) {}
+  ~BlockConstructor() override { delete block_; }
+  Status FinishImpl(const Options& /*options*/,
+                    const ImmutableCFOptions& /*ioptions*/,
+                    const MutableCFOptions& /*moptions*/,
+                    const BlockBasedTableOptions& table_options,
+                    const InternalKeyComparator& /*internal_comparator*/,
+                    const stl_wrappers::KVMap& kv_map) override {
+    delete block_;
+    block_ = nullptr;
+    BlockBuilder builder(table_options.block_restart_interval);
+
+    for (const auto& kv : kv_map) {
+      // `DataBlockIter` assumes it reads only internal keys. `BlockConstructor`
+      // clients provide user keys, so we need to convert to internal key format
+      // before writing the data block.
+      ParsedInternalKey ikey(kv.first, kMaxSequenceNumber, kTypeValue);
+      std::string encoded;
+      AppendInternalKey(&encoded, ikey);
+      builder.Add(encoded, kv.second);
+    }
+    // Open the block
+    data_ = builder.Finish().ToString();
+    BlockContents contents;
+    contents.data = data_;
+    block_ = new Block(std::move(contents));
+    return Status::OK();
+  }
+  InternalIterator* NewIterator(
+      const SliceTransform* /*prefix_extractor*/) const override {
+    // `DataBlockIter` returns the internal keys it reads.
+    // `KeyConvertingIterator` converts them to user keys before they are
+    // exposed to the `BlockConstructor` clients.
+    return new KeyConvertingIterator(
+        block_->NewDataIterator(comparator_, kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
+  }
+
+ private:
+  const Comparator* comparator_;
+  std::string data_;
+  Block* block_;
+
+  BlockConstructor();
+};
+
+class TableConstructor : public Constructor {
  public:
   explicit TableConstructor(const Comparator* cmp,
                             bool convert_to_internal_key = false,
@@ -4350,8 +4358,7 @@ TEST_P(BlockBasedTableTest, PropertiesBlockRestartPointTest) {
     Block metaindex_block(std::move(metaindex_contents));
 
     std::unique_ptr<InternalIterator> meta_iter(metaindex_block.NewDataIterator(
-        BytewiseComparator(), BytewiseComparator(),
-        kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
+        BytewiseComparator(), kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber));
     bool found_properties_block = true;
     ASSERT_OK(SeekToPropertiesBlock(meta_iter.get(), &found_properties_block));
     ASSERT_TRUE(found_properties_block);
@@ -4430,7 +4437,7 @@ TEST_P(BlockBasedTableTest, PropertiesMetaBlockLast) {
 
   // verify properties block comes last
   std::unique_ptr<InternalIterator> metaindex_iter{
-      metaindex_block.NewDataIterator(options.comparator, options.comparator,
+      metaindex_block.NewDataIterator(options.comparator,
                                       kDisableGlobalSequenceNumber)};
   uint64_t max_offset = 0;
   std::string key_at_max_offset;
diff --git a/util/user_comparator_wrapper.h b/util/user_comparator_wrapper.h
index e8d18237a..3b67debd0 100644
--- a/util/user_comparator_wrapper.h
+++ b/util/user_comparator_wrapper.h
@@ -17,6 +17,10 @@ namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE {
 // perf_context.user_key_comparison_count.
 class UserComparatorWrapper final : public Comparator {
  public:
+  // `UserComparatorWrapper`s constructed with the default constructor are not
+  // usable and will segfault on any attempt to use them for comparisons.
+  UserComparatorWrapper() : user_comparator_(nullptr) {}
+
   explicit UserComparatorWrapper(const Comparator* const user_cmp)
       : Comparator(user_cmp->timestamp_size()), user_comparator_(user_cmp) {}