rocksdb/db/version_set.cc

//  Copyright (c) 2013, Facebook, Inc.  All rights reserved.
//  This source code is licensed under the BSD-style license found in the
//  LICENSE file in the root directory of this source tree. An additional grant
//  of patent rights can be found in the PATENTS file in the same directory.
//
// Copyright (c) 2011 The LevelDB Authors. All rights reserved.
// Use of this source code is governed by a BSD-style license that can be
// found in the LICENSE file. See the AUTHORS file for names of contributors.

#include "db/version_set.h"

#ifndef __STDC_FORMAT_MACROS
#define __STDC_FORMAT_MACROS
#endif

#include <inttypes.h>
#include <algorithm>
#include <map>
#include <set>
#include <climits>
#include <unordered_map>
#include <vector>
#include <stdio.h>

#include "db/filename.h"
#include "db/log_reader.h"
#include "db/log_writer.h"
#include "db/memtable.h"
#include "db/merge_context.h"
#include "db/table_cache.h"
#include "db/compaction.h"
#include "db/version_builder.h"
#include "rocksdb/env.h"
#include "rocksdb/merge_operator.h"
#include "table/table_reader.h"
#include "table/merger.h"
#include "table/two_level_iterator.h"
#include "table/format.h"
#include "table/plain_table_factory.h"
#include "table/meta_blocks.h"
#include "table/get_context.h"
#include "util/coding.h"
#include "util/logging.h"
#include "util/stop_watch.h"

namespace rocksdb {

namespace {

// Find File in LevelFilesBrief data structure
// Within an index range defined by left and right
int FindFileInRange(const InternalKeyComparator& icmp,
    const LevelFilesBrief& file_level,
    const Slice& key,
    uint32_t left,
    uint32_t right) {
  while (left < right) {
    uint32_t mid = (left + right) / 2;
    const FdWithKeyRange& f = file_level.files[mid];
    if (icmp.InternalKeyComparator::Compare(f.largest_key, key) < 0) {
      // Key at "mid.largest" is < "target".  Therefore all
      // files at or before "mid" are uninteresting.
      left = mid + 1;
    } else {
      // Key at "mid.largest" is >= "target".  Therefore all files
      // after "mid" are uninteresting.
      right = mid;
    }
  }
  return right;
}

// Class to help choose the next file to search for the particular key.
// Searches and returns files level by level.
// We can search level-by-level since entries never hop across
// levels. Therefore we are guaranteed that if we find data
// in a smaller level, later levels are irrelevant (unless we
// are MergeInProgress).
class FilePicker {
 public:
  FilePicker(
      std::vector<FileMetaData*>* files,
      const Slice& user_key,
      const Slice& ikey,
      autovector<LevelFilesBrief>* file_levels,
      unsigned int num_levels,
      FileIndexer* file_indexer,
      const Comparator* user_comparator,
      const InternalKeyComparator* internal_comparator)
      : num_levels_(num_levels),
        curr_level_(-1),
        search_left_bound_(0),
        search_right_bound_(FileIndexer::kLevelMaxIndex),
#ifndef NDEBUG
        files_(files),
#endif
        level_files_brief_(file_levels),
        user_key_(user_key),
        ikey_(ikey),
        file_indexer_(file_indexer),
        user_comparator_(user_comparator),
        internal_comparator_(internal_comparator) {
    // Setup member variables to search first level.
    search_ended_ = !PrepareNextLevel();
    if (!search_ended_) {
      // Prefetch Level 0 table data to avoid cache miss if possible.
      for (unsigned int i = 0; i < (*level_files_brief_)[0].num_files; ++i) {
        auto* r = (*level_files_brief_)[0].files[i].fd.table_reader;
        if (r) {
          r->Prepare(ikey);
        }
      }
    }
  }

  FdWithKeyRange* GetNextFile() {
    while (!search_ended_) {  // Loops over different levels.
      while (curr_index_in_curr_level_ < curr_file_level_->num_files) {
        // Loops over all files in current level.
        FdWithKeyRange* f = &curr_file_level_->files[curr_index_in_curr_level_];
        int cmp_largest = -1;

        // Do key range filtering of files or/and fractional cascading if:
        // (1) not all the files are in level 0, or
        // (2) there are more than 3 Level 0 files
        // If there are only 3 or less level 0 files in the system, we skip
        // the key range filtering. In this case, more likely, the system is
        // highly tuned to minimize number of tables queried by each query,
        // so it is unlikely that key range filtering is more efficient than
        // querying the files.
        if (num_levels_ > 1 || curr_file_level_->num_files > 3) {
          // Check if key is within a file's range. If search left bound and
          // right bound point to the same find, we are sure key falls in
          // range.
          assert(
              curr_level_ == 0 ||
              curr_index_in_curr_level_ == start_index_in_curr_level_ ||
              user_comparator_->Compare(user_key_,
                ExtractUserKey(f->smallest_key)) <= 0);

          int cmp_smallest = user_comparator_->Compare(user_key_,
              ExtractUserKey(f->smallest_key));
          if (cmp_smallest >= 0) {
            cmp_largest = user_comparator_->Compare(user_key_,
                ExtractUserKey(f->largest_key));
          }

          // Setup file search bound for the next level based on the
          // comparison results
          if (curr_level_ > 0) {
            file_indexer_->GetNextLevelIndex(curr_level_,
                                            curr_index_in_curr_level_,
                                            cmp_smallest, cmp_largest,
                                            &search_left_bound_,
                                            &search_right_bound_);
          }
          // Key falls out of current file's range
          if (cmp_smallest < 0 || cmp_largest > 0) {
            if (curr_level_ == 0) {
              ++curr_index_in_curr_level_;
              continue;
            } else {
              // Search next level.
              break;
            }
          }
        }
#ifndef NDEBUG
        // Sanity check to make sure that the files are correctly sorted
        if (prev_file_) {
          if (curr_level_ != 0) {
            int comp_sign = internal_comparator_->Compare(
                prev_file_->largest_key, f->smallest_key);
            assert(comp_sign < 0);
          } else {
            // level == 0, the current file cannot be newer than the previous
            // one. Use compressed data structure, has no attribute seqNo
            assert(curr_index_in_curr_level_ > 0);
            assert(!NewestFirstBySeqNo(files_[0][curr_index_in_curr_level_],
                  files_[0][curr_index_in_curr_level_-1]));
          }
        }
        prev_file_ = f;
#endif
        if (curr_level_ > 0 && cmp_largest < 0) {
          // No more files to search in this level.
          search_ended_ = !PrepareNextLevel();
        } else {
          ++curr_index_in_curr_level_;
        }
        return f;
      }
      // Start searching next level.
      search_ended_ = !PrepareNextLevel();
    }
    // Search ended.
    return nullptr;
  }

 private:
  unsigned int num_levels_;
  unsigned int curr_level_;
  int search_left_bound_;
  int search_right_bound_;
#ifndef NDEBUG
  std::vector<FileMetaData*>* files_;
#endif
  autovector<LevelFilesBrief>* level_files_brief_;
  bool search_ended_;
  LevelFilesBrief* curr_file_level_;
  unsigned int curr_index_in_curr_level_;
  unsigned int start_index_in_curr_level_;
  Slice user_key_;
  Slice ikey_;
  FileIndexer* file_indexer_;
  const Comparator* user_comparator_;
  const InternalKeyComparator* internal_comparator_;
#ifndef NDEBUG
  FdWithKeyRange* prev_file_;
#endif

  // Setup local variables to search next level.
  // Returns false if there are no more levels to search.
  bool PrepareNextLevel() {
    curr_level_++;
    while (curr_level_ < num_levels_) {
      curr_file_level_ = &(*level_files_brief_)[curr_level_];
      if (curr_file_level_->num_files == 0) {
        // When current level is empty, the search bound generated from upper
        // level must be [0, -1] or [0, FileIndexer::kLevelMaxIndex] if it is
        // also empty.
        assert(search_left_bound_ == 0);
        assert(search_right_bound_ == -1 ||
               search_right_bound_ == FileIndexer::kLevelMaxIndex);
        // Since current level is empty, it will need to search all files in
        // the next level
        search_left_bound_ = 0;
        search_right_bound_ = FileIndexer::kLevelMaxIndex;
        curr_level_++;
        continue;
      }

      // Some files may overlap each other. We find
      // all files that overlap user_key and process them in order from
      // newest to oldest. In the context of merge-operator, this can occur at
      // any level. Otherwise, it only occurs at Level-0 (since Put/Deletes
      // are always compacted into a single entry).
      int32_t start_index;
      if (curr_level_ == 0) {
        // On Level-0, we read through all files to check for overlap.
        start_index = 0;
      } else {
        // On Level-n (n>=1), files are sorted. Binary search to find the
        // earliest file whose largest key >= ikey. Search left bound and
        // right bound are used to narrow the range.
        if (search_left_bound_ == search_right_bound_) {
          start_index = search_left_bound_;
        } else if (search_left_bound_ < search_right_bound_) {
          if (search_right_bound_ == FileIndexer::kLevelMaxIndex) {
            search_right_bound_ = curr_file_level_->num_files - 1;
          }
          start_index = FindFileInRange(*internal_comparator_,
              *curr_file_level_, ikey_,
              search_left_bound_, search_right_bound_);
        } else {
          // search_left_bound > search_right_bound, key does not exist in
          // this level. Since no comparision is done in this level, it will
          // need to search all files in the next level.
          search_left_bound_ = 0;
          search_right_bound_ = FileIndexer::kLevelMaxIndex;
          curr_level_++;
          continue;
        }
      }
      start_index_in_curr_level_ = start_index;
      curr_index_in_curr_level_ = start_index;
#ifndef NDEBUG
      prev_file_ = nullptr;
#endif
      return true;
    }
    // curr_level_ = num_levels_. So, no more levels to search.
    return false;
  }
};
}  // anonymous namespace

VersionStorageInfo::~VersionStorageInfo() { delete[] files_; }

Version::~Version() {
  assert(refs_ == 0);

  // Remove from linked list
  prev_->next_ = next_;
  next_->prev_ = prev_;

  // Drop references to files
  for (int level = 0; level < storage_info_.num_levels_; level++) {
    for (size_t i = 0; i < storage_info_.files_[level].size(); i++) {
      FileMetaData* f = storage_info_.files_[level][i];
      assert(f->refs > 0);
      f->refs--;
      if (f->refs <= 0) {
        if (f->table_reader_handle) {
          cfd_->table_cache()->ReleaseHandle(f->table_reader_handle);
          f->table_reader_handle = nullptr;
        }
        vset_->obsolete_files_.push_back(f);
      }
    }
  }
}

int FindFile(const InternalKeyComparator& icmp,
             const LevelFilesBrief& file_level,
             const Slice& key) {
  return FindFileInRange(icmp, file_level, key, 0, file_level.num_files);
}

void DoGenerateLevelFilesBrief(LevelFilesBrief* file_level,
        const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& files,
        Arena* arena) {
  assert(file_level);
  assert(files.size() >= 0);
  assert(arena);

  size_t num = files.size();
  file_level->num_files = num;
  char* mem = arena->AllocateAligned(num * sizeof(FdWithKeyRange));
  file_level->files = new (mem)FdWithKeyRange[num];

  for (size_t i = 0; i < num; i++) {
    Slice smallest_key = files[i]->smallest.Encode();
    Slice largest_key = files[i]->largest.Encode();

    // Copy key slice to sequential memory
    size_t smallest_size = smallest_key.size();
    size_t largest_size = largest_key.size();
    mem = arena->AllocateAligned(smallest_size + largest_size);
    memcpy(mem, smallest_key.data(), smallest_size);
    memcpy(mem + smallest_size, largest_key.data(), largest_size);

    FdWithKeyRange& f = file_level->files[i];
    f.fd = files[i]->fd;
    f.smallest_key = Slice(mem, smallest_size);
    f.largest_key = Slice(mem + smallest_size, largest_size);
  }
}

static bool AfterFile(const Comparator* ucmp,
                      const Slice* user_key, const FdWithKeyRange* f) {
  // nullptr user_key occurs before all keys and is therefore never after *f
  return (user_key != nullptr &&
          ucmp->Compare(*user_key, ExtractUserKey(f->largest_key)) > 0);
}

static bool BeforeFile(const Comparator* ucmp,
                       const Slice* user_key, const FdWithKeyRange* f) {
  // nullptr user_key occurs after all keys and is therefore never before *f
  return (user_key != nullptr &&
          ucmp->Compare(*user_key, ExtractUserKey(f->smallest_key)) < 0);
}

bool SomeFileOverlapsRange(
    const InternalKeyComparator& icmp,
    bool disjoint_sorted_files,
    const LevelFilesBrief& file_level,
    const Slice* smallest_user_key,
    const Slice* largest_user_key) {
  const Comparator* ucmp = icmp.user_comparator();
  if (!disjoint_sorted_files) {
    // Need to check against all files
    for (size_t i = 0; i < file_level.num_files; i++) {
      const FdWithKeyRange* f = &(file_level.files[i]);
      if (AfterFile(ucmp, smallest_user_key, f) ||
          BeforeFile(ucmp, largest_user_key, f)) {
        // No overlap
      } else {
        return true;  // Overlap
      }
    }
    return false;
  }

  // Binary search over file list
  uint32_t index = 0;
  if (smallest_user_key != nullptr) {
    // Find the earliest possible internal key for smallest_user_key
    InternalKey small(*smallest_user_key, kMaxSequenceNumber,kValueTypeForSeek);
    index = FindFile(icmp, file_level, small.Encode());
  }

  if (index >= file_level.num_files) {
    // beginning of range is after all files, so no overlap.
    return false;
  }

  return !BeforeFile(ucmp, largest_user_key, &file_level.files[index]);
}

namespace {

// An internal iterator.  For a given version/level pair, yields
// information about the files in the level.  For a given entry, key()
// is the largest key that occurs in the file, and value() is an
// 16-byte value containing the file number and file size, both
// encoded using EncodeFixed64.
class LevelFileNumIterator : public Iterator {
 public:
  LevelFileNumIterator(const InternalKeyComparator& icmp,
                       const LevelFilesBrief* flevel)
      : icmp_(icmp),
        flevel_(flevel),
        index_(flevel->num_files),
        current_value_(0, 0, 0) {  // Marks as invalid
  }
  virtual bool Valid() const {
    return index_ < flevel_->num_files;
  }
  virtual void Seek(const Slice& target) {
    index_ = FindFile(icmp_, *flevel_, target);
  }
  virtual void SeekToFirst() { index_ = 0; }
  virtual void SeekToLast() {
    index_ = (flevel_->num_files == 0) ? 0 : flevel_->num_files - 1;
  }
  virtual void Next() {
    assert(Valid());
    index_++;
  }
  virtual void Prev() {
    assert(Valid());
    if (index_ == 0) {
      index_ = flevel_->num_files;  // Marks as invalid
    } else {
      index_--;
    }
  }
  Slice key() const {
    assert(Valid());
    return flevel_->files[index_].largest_key;
  }
  Slice value() const {
    assert(Valid());

    auto file_meta = flevel_->files[index_];
    current_value_ = file_meta.fd;
    return Slice(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(&current_value_),
                 sizeof(FileDescriptor));
  }
  virtual Status status() const { return Status::OK(); }
 private:
  const InternalKeyComparator icmp_;
  const LevelFilesBrief* flevel_;
  uint32_t index_;
  mutable FileDescriptor current_value_;
};

class LevelFileIteratorState : public TwoLevelIteratorState {
 public:
  LevelFileIteratorState(TableCache* table_cache,
    const ReadOptions& read_options, const EnvOptions& env_options,
    const InternalKeyComparator& icomparator, bool for_compaction,
    bool prefix_enabled)
    : TwoLevelIteratorState(prefix_enabled),
      table_cache_(table_cache), read_options_(read_options),
      env_options_(env_options), icomparator_(icomparator),
      for_compaction_(for_compaction) {}

  Iterator* NewSecondaryIterator(const Slice& meta_handle) override {
    if (meta_handle.size() != sizeof(FileDescriptor)) {
      return NewErrorIterator(
          Status::Corruption("FileReader invoked with unexpected value"));
    } else {
      const FileDescriptor* fd =
          reinterpret_cast<const FileDescriptor*>(meta_handle.data());
      return table_cache_->NewIterator(
          read_options_, env_options_, icomparator_, *fd,
          nullptr /* don't need reference to table*/, for_compaction_);
    }
  }

  bool PrefixMayMatch(const Slice& internal_key) override {
    return true;
  }

 private:
  TableCache* table_cache_;
  const ReadOptions read_options_;
  const EnvOptions& env_options_;
  const InternalKeyComparator& icomparator_;
  bool for_compaction_;
};

// A wrapper of version builder which references the current version in
// constructor and unref it in the destructor.
// Both of the constructor and destructor need to be called inside DB Mutex.
class BaseReferencedVersionBuilder {
 public:
  explicit BaseReferencedVersionBuilder(ColumnFamilyData* cfd)
      : version_builder_(new VersionBuilder(
            cfd->current()->version_set()->env_options(), cfd->table_cache(),
            cfd->current()->storage_info())),
        version_(cfd->current()) {
    version_->Ref();
  }
  ~BaseReferencedVersionBuilder() {
    delete version_builder_;
    version_->Unref();
  }
  VersionBuilder* version_builder() { return version_builder_; }

 private:
  VersionBuilder* version_builder_;
  Version* version_;
};
}  // anonymous namespace

Status Version::GetTableProperties(std::shared_ptr<const TableProperties>* tp,
                                   const FileMetaData* file_meta,
                                   const std::string* fname) {
  auto table_cache = cfd_->table_cache();
  auto ioptions = cfd_->ioptions();
  Status s = table_cache->GetTableProperties(
      vset_->env_options_, cfd_->internal_comparator(), file_meta->fd,
      tp, true /* no io */);
  if (s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }

  // We only ignore error type `Incomplete` since it's by design that we
  // disallow table when it's not in table cache.
  if (!s.IsIncomplete()) {
    return s;
  }

  // 2. Table is not present in table cache, we'll read the table properties
  // directly from the properties block in the file.
  std::unique_ptr<RandomAccessFile> file;
  if (fname != nullptr) {
    s = ioptions->env->NewRandomAccessFile(
        *fname, &file, vset_->env_options_);
  } else {
    s = ioptions->env->NewRandomAccessFile(
        TableFileName(vset_->db_options_->db_paths, file_meta->fd.GetNumber(),
                      file_meta->fd.GetPathId()),
        &file, vset_->env_options_);
  }
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }

  TableProperties* raw_table_properties;
  // By setting the magic number to kInvalidTableMagicNumber, we can by
  // pass the magic number check in the footer.
  s = ReadTableProperties(
      file.get(), file_meta->fd.GetFileSize(),
      Footer::kInvalidTableMagicNumber /* table's magic number */,
      vset_->env_, ioptions->info_log, &raw_table_properties);
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }
  RecordTick(ioptions->statistics, NUMBER_DIRECT_LOAD_TABLE_PROPERTIES);

  *tp = std::shared_ptr<const TableProperties>(raw_table_properties);
  return s;
}

Status Version::GetPropertiesOfAllTables(TablePropertiesCollection* props) {
  for (int level = 0; level < storage_info_.num_levels_; level++) {
    for (const auto& file_meta : storage_info_.files_[level]) {
      auto fname =
          TableFileName(vset_->db_options_->db_paths, file_meta->fd.GetNumber(),
                        file_meta->fd.GetPathId());
      // 1. If the table is already present in table cache, load table
      // properties from there.
      std::shared_ptr<const TableProperties> table_properties;
      Status s = GetTableProperties(&table_properties, file_meta, &fname);
      if (s.ok()) {
        props->insert({fname, table_properties});
      } else {
        return s;
      }
    }
  }

  return Status::OK();
}

size_t Version::GetMemoryUsageByTableReaders() {
  size_t total_usage = 0;
  for (auto& file_level : storage_info_.level_files_brief_) {
    for (size_t i = 0; i < file_level.num_files; i++) {
      total_usage += cfd_->table_cache()->GetMemoryUsageByTableReader(
          vset_->env_options_, cfd_->internal_comparator(),
          file_level.files[i].fd);
    }
  }
  return total_usage;
}

uint64_t VersionStorageInfo::GetEstimatedActiveKeys() const {
  // Estimation will be not accurate when:
  // (1) there is merge keys
  // (2) keys are directly overwritten
  // (3) deletion on non-existing keys
  // (4) low number of samples
  if (num_samples_ == 0) {
    return 0;
  }

  if (num_samples_ < files_->size()) {
    // casting to avoid overflowing
    return static_cast<uint64_t>(static_cast<double>(
        accumulated_num_non_deletions_ - accumulated_num_deletions_) *
        files_->size() / num_samples_);
  } else {
    return accumulated_num_non_deletions_ - accumulated_num_deletions_;
  }
}

void Version::AddIterators(const ReadOptions& read_options,
                           const EnvOptions& soptions,
                           MergeIteratorBuilder* merge_iter_builder) {
  assert(storage_info_.finalized_);

  // Merge all level zero files together since they may overlap
  for (size_t i = 0; i < storage_info_.LevelFilesBrief(0).num_files; i++) {
    const auto& file = storage_info_.LevelFilesBrief(0).files[i];
    merge_iter_builder->AddIterator(cfd_->table_cache()->NewIterator(
        read_options, soptions, cfd_->internal_comparator(), file.fd, nullptr,
        false, merge_iter_builder->GetArena()));
  }

  // For levels > 0, we can use a concatenating iterator that sequentially
  // walks through the non-overlapping files in the level, opening them
  // lazily.
  for (int level = 1; level < storage_info_.num_levels(); level++) {
    if (storage_info_.level_files_brief_[level].num_files != 0) {
      merge_iter_builder->AddIterator(NewTwoLevelIterator(
          new LevelFileIteratorState(
              cfd_->table_cache(), read_options, soptions,
              cfd_->internal_comparator(), false /* for_compaction */,
              cfd_->ioptions()->prefix_extractor != nullptr),
          new LevelFileNumIterator(cfd_->internal_comparator(),
                                   &storage_info_.LevelFilesBrief(level)),
          merge_iter_builder->GetArena()));
    }
  }
}

VersionStorageInfo::VersionStorageInfo(
    const InternalKeyComparator* internal_comparator,
    const Comparator* user_comparator, int num_levels,
    CompactionStyle compaction_style, VersionStorageInfo* ref_vstorage)
    : internal_comparator_(internal_comparator),
      user_comparator_(user_comparator),
      // cfd is nullptr if Version is dummy
      num_levels_(num_levels),
      num_non_empty_levels_(num_levels_),
      file_indexer_(user_comparator),
      compaction_style_(compaction_style),
      files_(new std::vector<FileMetaData*>[num_levels_]),
      files_by_size_(num_levels_),
      next_file_to_compact_by_size_(num_levels_),
      compaction_score_(num_levels_),
      compaction_level_(num_levels_),
      accumulated_file_size_(0),
      accumulated_raw_key_size_(0),
      accumulated_raw_value_size_(0),
      accumulated_num_non_deletions_(0),
      accumulated_num_deletions_(0),
      num_samples_(0),
      finalized_(false) {
  if (ref_vstorage != nullptr) {
    accumulated_file_size_ = ref_vstorage->accumulated_file_size_;
    accumulated_raw_key_size_ = ref_vstorage->accumulated_raw_key_size_;
    accumulated_raw_value_size_ = ref_vstorage->accumulated_raw_value_size_;
    accumulated_num_non_deletions_ =
        ref_vstorage->accumulated_num_non_deletions_;
    accumulated_num_deletions_ = ref_vstorage->accumulated_num_deletions_;
    num_samples_ = ref_vstorage->num_samples_;
  }
}

Version::Version(ColumnFamilyData* cfd, VersionSet* vset,
                 uint64_t version_number)
    : cfd_(cfd),
      info_log_((cfd == nullptr) ? nullptr : cfd->ioptions()->info_log),
      db_statistics_((cfd == nullptr) ? nullptr : cfd->ioptions()->statistics),
      table_cache_((cfd == nullptr) ? nullptr : cfd->table_cache()),
      merge_operator_((cfd == nullptr) ? nullptr
                                       : cfd->ioptions()->merge_operator),
      storage_info_((cfd == nullptr) ? nullptr : &cfd->internal_comparator(),
                    (cfd == nullptr) ? nullptr : cfd->user_comparator(),
                    cfd == nullptr ? 0 : cfd->NumberLevels(),
                    cfd == nullptr ? kCompactionStyleLevel
                                   : cfd->ioptions()->compaction_style,
                    (cfd == nullptr || cfd->current() == nullptr)
                        ? nullptr
                        : cfd->current()->storage_info()),
      vset_(vset),
      next_(this),
      prev_(this),
      refs_(0),
      version_number_(version_number) {}

void Version::Get(const ReadOptions& read_options,
                  const LookupKey& k,
                  std::string* value,
                  Status* status,
                  MergeContext* merge_context,
                  bool* value_found) {
  Slice ikey = k.internal_key();
  Slice user_key = k.user_key();

  assert(status->ok() || status->IsMergeInProgress());

  GetContext get_context(
      user_comparator(), merge_operator_, info_log_, db_statistics_,
      status->ok() ? GetContext::kNotFound : GetContext::kMerge, user_key,
      value, value_found, merge_context);

  FilePicker fp(
      storage_info_.files_, user_key, ikey, &storage_info_.level_files_brief_,
      storage_info_.num_non_empty_levels_, &storage_info_.file_indexer_,
      user_comparator(), internal_comparator());
  FdWithKeyRange* f = fp.GetNextFile();
  while (f != nullptr) {
    *status = table_cache_->Get(read_options, *internal_comparator(), f->fd,
                                ikey, &get_context);
    // TODO: examine the behavior for corrupted key
    if (!status->ok()) {
      return;
    }

    switch (get_context.State()) {
      case GetContext::kNotFound:
        // Keep searching in other files
        break;
      case GetContext::kFound:
        return;
      case GetContext::kDeleted:
        // Use empty error message for speed
        *status = Status::NotFound();
        return;
      case GetContext::kCorrupt:
        *status = Status::Corruption("corrupted key for ", user_key);
        return;
      case GetContext::kMerge:
        break;
    }
    f = fp.GetNextFile();
  }

  if (GetContext::kMerge == get_context.State()) {
    if (!merge_operator_) {
      *status =  Status::InvalidArgument(
          "merge_operator is not properly initialized.");
      return;
    }
    // merge_operands are in saver and we hit the beginning of the key history
    // do a final merge of nullptr and operands;
    if (merge_operator_->FullMerge(user_key, nullptr,
                                   merge_context->GetOperands(), value,
                                   info_log_)) {
      *status = Status::OK();
    } else {
      RecordTick(db_statistics_, NUMBER_MERGE_FAILURES);
      *status = Status::Corruption("could not perform end-of-key merge for ",
                                   user_key);
    }
  } else {
    *status = Status::NotFound(); // Use an empty error message for speed
  }
}

void VersionStorageInfo::GenerateLevelFilesBrief() {
  level_files_brief_.resize(num_non_empty_levels_);
  for (int level = 0; level < num_non_empty_levels_; level++) {
    DoGenerateLevelFilesBrief(
        &level_files_brief_[level], files_[level], &arena_);
  }
}

void Version::PrepareApply(const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
                           std::vector<uint64_t>& size_being_compacted) {
  UpdateAccumulatedStats();
  storage_info_.ComputeCompactionScore(
      mutable_cf_options, cfd_->ioptions()->compaction_options_fifo,
      size_being_compacted);
  storage_info_.UpdateFilesBySize();
  storage_info_.UpdateNumNonEmptyLevels();
  storage_info_.GenerateFileIndexer();
  storage_info_.GenerateLevelFilesBrief();
}

bool Version::MaybeInitializeFileMetaData(FileMetaData* file_meta) {
  if (file_meta->init_stats_from_file ||
      file_meta->compensated_file_size > 0) {
    return false;
  }
  std::shared_ptr<const TableProperties> tp;
  Status s = GetTableProperties(&tp, file_meta);
  file_meta->init_stats_from_file = true;
  if (!s.ok()) {
    Log(InfoLogLevel::ERROR_LEVEL, vset_->db_options_->info_log,
        "Unable to load table properties for file %" PRIu64 " --- %s\n",
        file_meta->fd.GetNumber(), s.ToString().c_str());
    return false;
  }
  if (tp.get() == nullptr) return false;
  file_meta->num_entries = tp->num_entries;
  file_meta->num_deletions = GetDeletedKeys(tp->user_collected_properties);
  file_meta->raw_value_size = tp->raw_value_size;
  file_meta->raw_key_size = tp->raw_key_size;

  return true;
}

void VersionStorageInfo::UpdateAccumulatedStats(FileMetaData* file_meta) {
  assert(file_meta->init_stats_from_file);
  accumulated_file_size_ += file_meta->fd.GetFileSize();
  accumulated_raw_key_size_ += file_meta->raw_key_size;
  accumulated_raw_value_size_ += file_meta->raw_value_size;
  accumulated_num_non_deletions_ +=
      file_meta->num_entries - file_meta->num_deletions;
  accumulated_num_deletions_ += file_meta->num_deletions;
  num_samples_++;
}

void Version::UpdateAccumulatedStats() {
  // maximum number of table properties loaded from files.
  const int kMaxInitCount = 20;
  int init_count = 0;
  // here only the first kMaxInitCount files which haven't been
  // initialized from file will be updated with num_deletions.
  // The motivation here is to cap the maximum I/O per Version creation.
  // The reason for choosing files from lower-level instead of higher-level
  // is that such design is able to propagate the initialization from
  // lower-level to higher-level:  When the num_deletions of lower-level
  // files are updated, it will make the lower-level files have accurate
  // compensated_file_size, making lower-level to higher-level compaction
  // will be triggered, which creates higher-level files whose num_deletions
  // will be updated here.
  for (int level = 0;
       level < storage_info_.num_levels_ && init_count < kMaxInitCount;
       ++level) {
    for (auto* file_meta : storage_info_.files_[level]) {
      if (MaybeInitializeFileMetaData(file_meta)) {
        // each FileMeta will be initialized only once.
        storage_info_.UpdateAccumulatedStats(file_meta);
        if (++init_count >= kMaxInitCount) {
          break;
        }
      }
    }
  }
  // In case all sampled-files contain only deletion entries, then we
  // load the table-property of a file in higher-level to initialize
  // that value.
  for (int level = storage_info_.num_levels_ - 1;
       storage_info_.accumulated_raw_value_size_ == 0 && level >= 0; --level) {
    for (int i = static_cast<int>(storage_info_.files_[level].size()) - 1;
         storage_info_.accumulated_raw_value_size_ == 0 && i >= 0; --i) {
      if (MaybeInitializeFileMetaData(storage_info_.files_[level][i])) {
        storage_info_.UpdateAccumulatedStats(storage_info_.files_[level][i]);
      }
    }
  }

  storage_info_.ComputeCompensatedSizes();
}

void VersionStorageInfo::ComputeCompensatedSizes() {
  static const int kDeletionWeightOnCompaction = 2;
  uint64_t average_value_size = GetAverageValueSize();

  // compute the compensated size
  for (int level = 0; level < num_levels_; level++) {
    for (auto* file_meta : files_[level]) {
      // Here we only compute compensated_file_size for those file_meta
      // which compensated_file_size is uninitialized (== 0).
      if (file_meta->compensated_file_size == 0) {
        file_meta->compensated_file_size = file_meta->fd.GetFileSize() +
            file_meta->num_deletions * average_value_size *
            kDeletionWeightOnCompaction;
      }
    }
  }
}

int VersionStorageInfo::MaxInputLevel() const {
  if (compaction_style_ == kCompactionStyleLevel) {
    return num_levels() - 2;
  }
  return 0;
}

void VersionStorageInfo::ComputeCompactionScore(
    const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
    const CompactionOptionsFIFO& compaction_options_fifo,
    std::vector<uint64_t>& size_being_compacted) {
  double max_score = 0;
  int max_score_level = 0;

  for (int level = 0; level <= MaxInputLevel(); level++) {
    double score;
    if (level == 0) {
      // We treat level-0 specially by bounding the number of files
      // instead of number of bytes for two reasons:
      //
      // (1) With larger write-buffer sizes, it is nice not to do too
      // many level-0 compactions.
      //
      // (2) The files in level-0 are merged on every read and
      // therefore we wish to avoid too many files when the individual
      // file size is small (perhaps because of a small write-buffer
      // setting, or very high compression ratios, or lots of
      // overwrites/deletions).
      int numfiles = 0;
      uint64_t total_size = 0;
      for (unsigned int i = 0; i < files_[level].size(); i++) {
        if (!files_[level][i]->being_compacted) {
          total_size += files_[level][i]->compensated_file_size;
          numfiles++;
        }
      }
      if (compaction_style_ == kCompactionStyleFIFO) {
        score = static_cast<double>(total_size) /
                compaction_options_fifo.max_table_files_size;
      } else if (numfiles >= mutable_cf_options.level0_stop_writes_trigger) {
        // If we are slowing down writes, then we better compact that first
        score = 1000000;
      } else if (numfiles >=
          mutable_cf_options.level0_slowdown_writes_trigger) {
        score = 10000;
      } else {
        score = static_cast<double>(numfiles) /
                mutable_cf_options.level0_file_num_compaction_trigger;
      }
    } else {
      // Compute the ratio of current size to size limit.
      const uint64_t level_bytes =
          TotalCompensatedFileSize(files_[level]) - size_being_compacted[level];
      score = static_cast<double>(level_bytes) /
              mutable_cf_options.MaxBytesForLevel(level);
      if (max_score < score) {
        max_score = score;
        max_score_level = level;
      }
    }
    compaction_level_[level] = level;
    compaction_score_[level] = score;
  }

  // update the max compaction score in levels 1 to n-1
  max_compaction_score_ = max_score;
  max_compaction_score_level_ = max_score_level;

  // sort all the levels based on their score. Higher scores get listed
  // first. Use bubble sort because the number of entries are small.
  for (int i = 0; i < num_levels() - 2; i++) {
    for (int j = i + 1; j < num_levels() - 1; j++) {
      if (compaction_score_[i] < compaction_score_[j]) {
        double score = compaction_score_[i];
        int level = compaction_level_[i];
        compaction_score_[i] = compaction_score_[j];
        compaction_level_[i] = compaction_level_[j];
        compaction_score_[j] = score;
        compaction_level_[j] = level;
      }
    }
  }
}

namespace {

// used to sort files by size
struct Fsize {
  int index;
  FileMetaData* file;
};

// Compator that is used to sort files based on their size
// In normal mode: descending size
bool CompareCompensatedSizeDescending(const Fsize& first, const Fsize& second) {
  return (first.file->compensated_file_size >
      second.file->compensated_file_size);
}

} // anonymous namespace

void VersionStorageInfo::MaybeAddFile(int level, FileMetaData* f) {
  assert(level < num_levels());
  auto* level_files = &files_[level];
  // Must not overlap
  assert(level <= 0 || level_files->empty() ||
         internal_comparator_->Compare(
             (*level_files)[level_files->size() - 1]->largest, f->smallest) <
             0);
  f->refs++;
  level_files->push_back(f);
}

void VersionStorageInfo::UpdateNumNonEmptyLevels() {
  num_non_empty_levels_ = num_levels_;
  for (int i = num_levels_ - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
    if (files_[i].size() != 0) {
      return;
    } else {
      num_non_empty_levels_ = i;
    }
  }
}

void VersionStorageInfo::UpdateFilesBySize() {
  if (compaction_style_ == kCompactionStyleFIFO ||
      compaction_style_ == kCompactionStyleUniversal) {
    // don't need this
    return;
  }
  // No need to sort the highest level because it is never compacted.
  for (int level = 0; level < num_levels() - 1; level++) {
    const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& files = files_[level];
    auto& files_by_size = files_by_size_[level];
    assert(files_by_size.size() == 0);

    // populate a temp vector for sorting based on size
    std::vector<Fsize> temp(files.size());
    for (unsigned int i = 0; i < files.size(); i++) {
      temp[i].index = i;
      temp[i].file = files[i];
    }

    // sort the top number_of_files_to_sort_ based on file size
    size_t num = VersionStorageInfo::kNumberFilesToSort;
    if (num > temp.size()) {
      num = temp.size();
    }
    std::partial_sort(temp.begin(), temp.begin() + num, temp.end(),
                      CompareCompensatedSizeDescending);
    assert(temp.size() == files.size());

    // initialize files_by_size_
    for (unsigned int i = 0; i < temp.size(); i++) {
      files_by_size.push_back(temp[i].index);
    }
    next_file_to_compact_by_size_[level] = 0;
    assert(files_[level].size() == files_by_size_[level].size());
  }
}

void Version::Ref() {
  ++refs_;
}

bool Version::Unref() {
  assert(refs_ >= 1);
  --refs_;
  if (refs_ == 0) {
    delete this;
    return true;
  }
  return false;
}

bool VersionStorageInfo::NeedsCompaction() const {
  // In universal compaction case, this check doesn't really
  // check the compaction condition, but checks num of files threshold
  // only. We are not going to miss any compaction opportunity
  // but it's likely that more compactions are scheduled but
  // ending up with nothing to do. We can improve it later.
  // TODO(sdong): improve this function to be accurate for universal
  //              compactions.
  for (int i = 0; i <= MaxInputLevel(); i++) {
    if (compaction_score_[i] >= 1) {
      return true;
    }
  }
  return false;
}

bool VersionStorageInfo::OverlapInLevel(int level,
                                        const Slice* smallest_user_key,
                                        const Slice* largest_user_key) {
  return SomeFileOverlapsRange(*internal_comparator_, (level > 0),
                               level_files_brief_[level], smallest_user_key,
                               largest_user_key);
}

int VersionStorageInfo::PickLevelForMemTableOutput(
    const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options, const Slice& smallest_user_key,
    const Slice& largest_user_key) {
  int level = 0;
  if (!OverlapInLevel(0, &smallest_user_key, &largest_user_key)) {
    // Push to next level if there is no overlap in next level,
    // and the #bytes overlapping in the level after that are limited.
    InternalKey start(smallest_user_key, kMaxSequenceNumber, kValueTypeForSeek);
    InternalKey limit(largest_user_key, 0, static_cast<ValueType>(0));
    std::vector<FileMetaData*> overlaps;
    while (mutable_cf_options.max_mem_compaction_level > 0 &&
           level < mutable_cf_options.max_mem_compaction_level) {
      if (OverlapInLevel(level + 1, &smallest_user_key, &largest_user_key)) {
        break;
      }
      if (level + 2 >= num_levels_) {
        level++;
        break;
      }
      GetOverlappingInputs(level + 2, &start, &limit, &overlaps);
      const uint64_t sum = TotalFileSize(overlaps);
      if (sum > mutable_cf_options.MaxGrandParentOverlapBytes(level)) {
        break;
      }
      level++;
    }
  }

  return level;
}

// Store in "*inputs" all files in "level" that overlap [begin,end]
// If hint_index is specified, then it points to a file in the
// overlapping range.
// The file_index returns a pointer to any file in an overlapping range.
void VersionStorageInfo::GetOverlappingInputs(
    int level, const InternalKey* begin, const InternalKey* end,
    std::vector<FileMetaData*>* inputs, int hint_index, int* file_index) {
  inputs->clear();
  Slice user_begin, user_end;
  if (begin != nullptr) {
    user_begin = begin->user_key();
  }
  if (end != nullptr) {
    user_end = end->user_key();
  }
  if (file_index) {
    *file_index = -1;
  }
  const Comparator* user_cmp = user_comparator_;
  if (begin != nullptr && end != nullptr && level > 0) {
    GetOverlappingInputsBinarySearch(level, user_begin, user_end, inputs,
      hint_index, file_index);
    return;
  }
  for (size_t i = 0; i < level_files_brief_[level].num_files; ) {
    FdWithKeyRange* f = &(level_files_brief_[level].files[i++]);
    const Slice file_start = ExtractUserKey(f->smallest_key);
    const Slice file_limit = ExtractUserKey(f->largest_key);
    if (begin != nullptr && user_cmp->Compare(file_limit, user_begin) < 0) {
      // "f" is completely before specified range; skip it
    } else if (end != nullptr && user_cmp->Compare(file_start, user_end) > 0) {
      // "f" is completely after specified range; skip it
    } else {
      inputs->push_back(files_[level][i-1]);
      if (level == 0) {
        // Level-0 files may overlap each other.  So check if the newly
        // added file has expanded the range.  If so, restart search.
        if (begin != nullptr && user_cmp->Compare(file_start, user_begin) < 0) {
          user_begin = file_start;
          inputs->clear();
          i = 0;
        } else if (end != nullptr
            && user_cmp->Compare(file_limit, user_end) > 0) {
          user_end = file_limit;
          inputs->clear();
          i = 0;
        }
      } else if (file_index) {
        *file_index = i-1;
      }
    }
  }
}

// Store in "*inputs" all files in "level" that overlap [begin,end]
// Employ binary search to find at least one file that overlaps the
// specified range. From that file, iterate backwards and
// forwards to find all overlapping files.
void VersionStorageInfo::GetOverlappingInputsBinarySearch(
    int level, const Slice& user_begin, const Slice& user_end,
    std::vector<FileMetaData*>* inputs, int hint_index, int* file_index) {
  assert(level > 0);
  int min = 0;
  int mid = 0;
  int max = files_[level].size() -1;
  bool foundOverlap = false;
  const Comparator* user_cmp = user_comparator_;

  // if the caller already knows the index of a file that has overlap,
  // then we can skip the binary search.
  if (hint_index != -1) {
    mid = hint_index;
    foundOverlap = true;
  }

  while (!foundOverlap && min <= max) {
    mid = (min + max)/2;
    FdWithKeyRange* f = &(level_files_brief_[level].files[mid]);
    const Slice file_start = ExtractUserKey(f->smallest_key);
    const Slice file_limit = ExtractUserKey(f->largest_key);
    if (user_cmp->Compare(file_limit, user_begin) < 0) {
      min = mid + 1;
    } else if (user_cmp->Compare(user_end, file_start) < 0) {
      max = mid - 1;
    } else {
      foundOverlap = true;
      break;
    }
  }

  // If there were no overlapping files, return immediately.
  if (!foundOverlap) {
    return;
  }
  // returns the index where an overlap is found
  if (file_index) {
    *file_index = mid;
  }
  ExtendOverlappingInputs(level, user_begin, user_end, inputs, mid);
}

// Store in "*inputs" all files in "level" that overlap [begin,end]
// The midIndex specifies the index of at least one file that
// overlaps the specified range. From that file, iterate backward
// and forward to find all overlapping files.
// Use FileLevel in searching, make it faster
void VersionStorageInfo::ExtendOverlappingInputs(
    int level, const Slice& user_begin, const Slice& user_end,
    std::vector<FileMetaData*>* inputs, unsigned int midIndex) {

  const Comparator* user_cmp = user_comparator_;
  const FdWithKeyRange* files = level_files_brief_[level].files;
#ifndef NDEBUG
  {
    // assert that the file at midIndex overlaps with the range
    assert(midIndex < level_files_brief_[level].num_files);
    const FdWithKeyRange* f = &files[midIndex];
    const Slice fstart = ExtractUserKey(f->smallest_key);
    const Slice flimit = ExtractUserKey(f->largest_key);
    if (user_cmp->Compare(fstart, user_begin) >= 0) {
      assert(user_cmp->Compare(fstart, user_end) <= 0);
    } else {
      assert(user_cmp->Compare(flimit, user_begin) >= 0);
    }
  }
#endif
  int startIndex = midIndex + 1;
  int endIndex = midIndex;
  int count __attribute__((unused)) = 0;

  // check backwards from 'mid' to lower indices
  for (int i = midIndex; i >= 0 ; i--) {
    const FdWithKeyRange* f = &files[i];
    const Slice file_limit = ExtractUserKey(f->largest_key);
    if (user_cmp->Compare(file_limit, user_begin) >= 0) {
      startIndex = i;
      assert((count++, true));
    } else {
      break;
    }
  }
  // check forward from 'mid+1' to higher indices
  for (unsigned int i = midIndex+1;
       i < level_files_brief_[level].num_files; i++) {
    const FdWithKeyRange* f = &files[i];
    const Slice file_start = ExtractUserKey(f->smallest_key);
    if (user_cmp->Compare(file_start, user_end) <= 0) {
      assert((count++, true));
      endIndex = i;
    } else {
      break;
    }
  }
  assert(count == endIndex - startIndex + 1);

  // insert overlapping files into vector
  for (int i = startIndex; i <= endIndex; i++) {
    FileMetaData* f = files_[level][i];
    inputs->push_back(f);
  }
}

// Returns true iff the first or last file in inputs contains
// an overlapping user key to the file "just outside" of it (i.e.
// just after the last file, or just before the first file)
// REQUIRES: "*inputs" is a sorted list of non-overlapping files
bool VersionStorageInfo::HasOverlappingUserKey(
    const std::vector<FileMetaData*>* inputs, int level) {

  // If inputs empty, there is no overlap.
  // If level == 0, it is assumed that all needed files were already included.
  if (inputs->empty() || level == 0){
    return false;
  }

  const Comparator* user_cmp = user_comparator_;
  const rocksdb::LevelFilesBrief& file_level = level_files_brief_[level];
  const FdWithKeyRange* files = level_files_brief_[level].files;
  const size_t kNumFiles = file_level.num_files;

  // Check the last file in inputs against the file after it
  size_t last_file = FindFile(*internal_comparator_, file_level,
                              inputs->back()->largest.Encode());
  assert(last_file < kNumFiles);  // File should exist!
  if (last_file < kNumFiles-1) {                    // If not the last file
    const Slice last_key_in_input = ExtractUserKey(
        files[last_file].largest_key);
    const Slice first_key_after = ExtractUserKey(
        files[last_file+1].smallest_key);
    if (user_cmp->Compare(last_key_in_input, first_key_after) == 0) {
      // The last user key in input overlaps with the next file's first key
      return true;
    }
  }

  // Check the first file in inputs against the file just before it
  size_t first_file = FindFile(*internal_comparator_, file_level,
                               inputs->front()->smallest.Encode());
  assert(first_file <= last_file);   // File should exist!
  if (first_file > 0) {                                 // If not first file
    const Slice& first_key_in_input = ExtractUserKey(
        files[first_file].smallest_key);
    const Slice& last_key_before = ExtractUserKey(
        files[first_file-1].largest_key);
    if (user_cmp->Compare(first_key_in_input, last_key_before) == 0) {
      // The first user key in input overlaps with the previous file's last key
      return true;
    }
  }

  return false;
}

uint64_t VersionStorageInfo::NumLevelBytes(int level) const {
  assert(level >= 0);
  assert(level < num_levels());
  return TotalFileSize(files_[level]);
}

const char* VersionStorageInfo::LevelSummary(
    LevelSummaryStorage* scratch) const {
  int len = snprintf(scratch->buffer, sizeof(scratch->buffer), "files[");
  for (int i = 0; i < num_levels(); i++) {
    int sz = sizeof(scratch->buffer) - len;
    int ret = snprintf(scratch->buffer + len, sz, "%d ", int(files_[i].size()));
    if (ret < 0 || ret >= sz) break;
    len += ret;
  }
  if (len > 0) {
    // overwrite the last space
    --len;
  }
  snprintf(scratch->buffer + len, sizeof(scratch->buffer) - len, "]");
  return scratch->buffer;
}

const char* VersionStorageInfo::LevelFileSummary(FileSummaryStorage* scratch,
                                                 int level) const {
  int len = snprintf(scratch->buffer, sizeof(scratch->buffer), "files_size[");
  for (const auto& f : files_[level]) {
    int sz = sizeof(scratch->buffer) - len;
    char sztxt[16];
    AppendHumanBytes(f->fd.GetFileSize(), sztxt, sizeof(sztxt));
    int ret = snprintf(scratch->buffer + len, sz,
                       "#%" PRIu64 "(seq=%" PRIu64 ",sz=%s,%d) ",
                       f->fd.GetNumber(), f->smallest_seqno, sztxt,
                       static_cast<int>(f->being_compacted));
    if (ret < 0 || ret >= sz)
      break;
    len += ret;
  }
  // overwrite the last space (only if files_[level].size() is non-zero)
  if (files_[level].size() && len > 0) {
    --len;
  }
  snprintf(scratch->buffer + len, sizeof(scratch->buffer) - len, "]");
  return scratch->buffer;
}

int64_t VersionStorageInfo::MaxNextLevelOverlappingBytes() {
  uint64_t result = 0;
  std::vector<FileMetaData*> overlaps;
  for (int level = 1; level < num_levels() - 1; level++) {
    for (const auto& f : files_[level]) {
      GetOverlappingInputs(level + 1, &f->smallest, &f->largest, &overlaps);
      const uint64_t sum = TotalFileSize(overlaps);
      if (sum > result) {
        result = sum;
      }
    }
  }
  return result;
}

void Version::AddLiveFiles(std::vector<FileDescriptor>* live) {
  for (int level = 0; level < storage_info_.num_levels(); level++) {
    const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& files = storage_info_.files_[level];
    for (const auto& file : files) {
      live->push_back(file->fd);
    }
  }
}

std::string Version::DebugString(bool hex) const {
  std::string r;
  for (int level = 0; level < storage_info_.num_levels_; level++) {
    // E.g.,
    //   --- level 1 ---
    //   17:123['a' .. 'd']
    //   20:43['e' .. 'g']
    r.append("--- level ");
    AppendNumberTo(&r, level);
    r.append(" --- version# ");
    AppendNumberTo(&r, version_number_);
    r.append(" ---\n");
    const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& files = storage_info_.files_[level];
    for (size_t i = 0; i < files.size(); i++) {
      r.push_back(' ');
      AppendNumberTo(&r, files[i]->fd.GetNumber());
      r.push_back(':');
      AppendNumberTo(&r, files[i]->fd.GetFileSize());
      r.append("[");
      r.append(files[i]->smallest.DebugString(hex));
      r.append(" .. ");
      r.append(files[i]->largest.DebugString(hex));
      r.append("]\n");
    }
  }
  return r;
}

// this is used to batch writes to the manifest file
struct VersionSet::ManifestWriter {
  Status status;
  bool done;
  port::CondVar cv;
  ColumnFamilyData* cfd;
  VersionEdit* edit;

  explicit ManifestWriter(port::Mutex* mu, ColumnFamilyData* _cfd,
                          VersionEdit* e)
      : done(false), cv(mu), cfd(_cfd), edit(e) {}
};

VersionSet::VersionSet(const std::string& dbname, const DBOptions* db_options,
                       const EnvOptions& env_options, Cache* table_cache,
                       WriteController* write_controller)
    : column_family_set_(new ColumnFamilySet(dbname, db_options, env_options,
                                             table_cache, write_controller)),
      env_(db_options->env),
      dbname_(dbname),
      db_options_(db_options),
      next_file_number_(2),
      manifest_file_number_(0),  // Filled by Recover()
      pending_manifest_file_number_(0),
      last_sequence_(0),
      prev_log_number_(0),
      current_version_number_(0),
      manifest_file_size_(0),
      env_options_(env_options),
      env_options_compactions_(env_options_) {}

VersionSet::~VersionSet() {
  // we need to delete column_family_set_ because its destructor depends on
  // VersionSet
  column_family_set_.reset();
  for (auto file : obsolete_files_) {
    delete file;
  }
  obsolete_files_.clear();
}

void VersionSet::AppendVersion(ColumnFamilyData* column_family_data,
                               Version* v) {
  // Mark v finalized
  v->storage_info_.SetFinalized();

  // Make "v" current
  assert(v->refs_ == 0);
  Version* current = column_family_data->current();
  assert(v != current);
  if (current != nullptr) {
    assert(current->refs_ > 0);
    current->Unref();
  }
  column_family_data->SetCurrent(v);
  v->Ref();

  // Append to linked list
  v->prev_ = column_family_data->dummy_versions()->prev_;
  v->next_ = column_family_data->dummy_versions();
  v->prev_->next_ = v;
  v->next_->prev_ = v;
}

Status VersionSet::LogAndApply(ColumnFamilyData* column_family_data,
                               const MutableCFOptions& mutable_cf_options,
                               VersionEdit* edit, port::Mutex* mu,
                               Directory* db_directory, bool new_descriptor_log,
                               const ColumnFamilyOptions* new_cf_options) {
  mu->AssertHeld();

  // column_family_data can be nullptr only if this is column_family_add.
  // in that case, we also need to specify ColumnFamilyOptions
  if (column_family_data == nullptr) {
    assert(edit->is_column_family_add_);
    assert(new_cf_options != nullptr);
  }

  // queue our request
  ManifestWriter w(mu, column_family_data, edit);
  manifest_writers_.push_back(&w);
  while (!w.done && &w != manifest_writers_.front()) {
    w.cv.Wait();
  }
  if (w.done) {
    return w.status;
  }
  if (column_family_data != nullptr && column_family_data->IsDropped()) {
    // if column family is dropped by the time we get here, no need to write
    // anything to the manifest
    manifest_writers_.pop_front();
    // Notify new head of write queue
    if (!manifest_writers_.empty()) {
      manifest_writers_.front()->cv.Signal();
    }
    return Status::OK();
  }

  std::vector<VersionEdit*> batch_edits;
  Version* v = nullptr;
  std::unique_ptr<BaseReferencedVersionBuilder> builder_guard(nullptr);

  // process all requests in the queue
  ManifestWriter* last_writer = &w;
  assert(!manifest_writers_.empty());
  assert(manifest_writers_.front() == &w);
  if (edit->IsColumnFamilyManipulation()) {
    // no group commits for column family add or drop
    LogAndApplyCFHelper(edit);
    batch_edits.push_back(edit);
  } else {
    v = new Version(column_family_data, this, current_version_number_++);
    builder_guard.reset(new BaseReferencedVersionBuilder(column_family_data));
    auto* builder = builder_guard->version_builder();
    for (const auto& writer : manifest_writers_) {
      if (writer->edit->IsColumnFamilyManipulation() ||
          writer->cfd->GetID() != column_family_data->GetID()) {
        // no group commits for column family add or drop
        // also, group commits across column families are not supported
        break;
      }
      last_writer = writer;
      LogAndApplyHelper(column_family_data, builder, v, last_writer->edit, mu);
      batch_edits.push_back(last_writer->edit);
    }
    builder->SaveTo(v->storage_info());
  }

  // Initialize new descriptor log file if necessary by creating
  // a temporary file that contains a snapshot of the current version.
  uint64_t new_manifest_file_size = 0;
  Status s;

  assert(pending_manifest_file_number_ == 0);
  if (!descriptor_log_ ||
      manifest_file_size_ > db_options_->max_manifest_file_size) {
    pending_manifest_file_number_ = NewFileNumber();
    batch_edits.back()->SetNextFile(next_file_number_);
    new_descriptor_log = true;
  } else {
    pending_manifest_file_number_ = manifest_file_number_;
  }

  if (new_descriptor_log) {
    // if we're writing out new snapshot make sure to persist max column family
    if (column_family_set_->GetMaxColumnFamily() > 0) {
      edit->SetMaxColumnFamily(column_family_set_->GetMaxColumnFamily());
    }
  }

  // Unlock during expensive operations. New writes cannot get here
  // because &w is ensuring that all new writes get queued.
  {
    std::vector<uint64_t> size_being_compacted;
    if (!edit->IsColumnFamilyManipulation()) {
      size_being_compacted.resize(v->storage_info()->num_levels() - 1);
      // calculate the amount of data being compacted at every level
      column_family_data->compaction_picker()->SizeBeingCompacted(
          size_being_compacted);
    }

    mu->Unlock();

    if (!edit->IsColumnFamilyManipulation() &&
        db_options_->max_open_files == -1) {
      // unlimited table cache. Pre-load table handle now.
      // Need to do it out of the mutex.
      builder_guard->version_builder()->LoadTableHandlers();
    }

    // This is fine because everything inside of this block is serialized --
    // only one thread can be here at the same time
    if (new_descriptor_log) {
      // create manifest file
      Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
          "Creating manifest %" PRIu64 "\n", pending_manifest_file_number_);
      unique_ptr<WritableFile> descriptor_file;
      s = env_->NewWritableFile(
          DescriptorFileName(dbname_, pending_manifest_file_number_),
          &descriptor_file, env_->OptimizeForManifestWrite(env_options_));
      if (s.ok()) {
        descriptor_file->SetPreallocationBlockSize(
            db_options_->manifest_preallocation_size);
        descriptor_log_.reset(new log::Writer(std::move(descriptor_file)));
        s = WriteSnapshot(descriptor_log_.get());
      }
    }

    if (!edit->IsColumnFamilyManipulation()) {
      // This is cpu-heavy operations, which should be called outside mutex.
      v->PrepareApply(mutable_cf_options, size_being_compacted);
    }

    // Write new record to MANIFEST log
    if (s.ok()) {
      for (auto& e : batch_edits) {
        std::string record;
        if (!e->EncodeTo(&record)) {
          s = Status::Corruption(
              "Unable to Encode VersionEdit:" + e->DebugString(true));
          break;
        }
        s = descriptor_log_->AddRecord(record);
        if (!s.ok()) {
          break;
        }
      }
      if (s.ok() && db_options_->disableDataSync == false) {
        if (db_options_->use_fsync) {
          StopWatch sw(env_, db_options_->statistics.get(),
                       MANIFEST_FILE_SYNC_MICROS);
          s = descriptor_log_->file()->Fsync();
        } else {
          StopWatch sw(env_, db_options_->statistics.get(),
                       MANIFEST_FILE_SYNC_MICROS);
          s = descriptor_log_->file()->Sync();
        }
      }
      if (!s.ok()) {
        Log(InfoLogLevel::ERROR_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
            "MANIFEST write: %s\n", s.ToString().c_str());
        bool all_records_in = true;
        for (auto& e : batch_edits) {
          std::string record;
          if (!e->EncodeTo(&record)) {
            s = Status::Corruption(
                "Unable to Encode VersionEdit:" + e->DebugString(true));
            all_records_in = false;
            break;
          }
          if (!ManifestContains(pending_manifest_file_number_, record)) {
            all_records_in = false;
            break;
          }
        }
        if (all_records_in) {
          Log(InfoLogLevel::WARN_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
              "MANIFEST contains log record despite error; advancing to new "
              "version to prevent mismatch between in-memory and logged state"
              " If paranoid is set, then the db is now in readonly mode.");
          s = Status::OK();
        }
      }
    }

    // If we just created a new descriptor file, install it by writing a
    // new CURRENT file that points to it.
    if (s.ok() && new_descriptor_log) {
      s = SetCurrentFile(env_, dbname_, pending_manifest_file_number_,
                         db_options_->disableDataSync ? nullptr : db_directory);
      if (s.ok() && pending_manifest_file_number_ > manifest_file_number_) {
        // delete old manifest file
        Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
            "Deleting manifest %" PRIu64 " current manifest %" PRIu64 "\n",
            manifest_file_number_, pending_manifest_file_number_);
        // we don't care about an error here, PurgeObsoleteFiles will take care
        // of it later
        env_->DeleteFile(DescriptorFileName(dbname_, manifest_file_number_));
      }
    }

    if (s.ok()) {
      // find offset in manifest file where this version is stored.
      new_manifest_file_size = descriptor_log_->file()->GetFileSize();
    }

    LogFlush(db_options_->info_log);
    mu->Lock();
  }

  // Install the new version
  if (s.ok()) {
    if (edit->is_column_family_add_) {
      // no group commit on column family add
      assert(batch_edits.size() == 1);
      assert(new_cf_options != nullptr);
      CreateColumnFamily(*new_cf_options, edit);
    } else if (edit->is_column_family_drop_) {
      assert(batch_edits.size() == 1);
      column_family_data->SetDropped();
      if (column_family_data->Unref()) {
        delete column_family_data;
      }
    } else {
      uint64_t max_log_number_in_batch  = 0;
      for (auto& e : batch_edits) {
        if (e->has_log_number_) {
          max_log_number_in_batch =
              std::max(max_log_number_in_batch, e->log_number_);
        }
      }
      if (max_log_number_in_batch != 0) {
        assert(column_family_data->GetLogNumber() <= max_log_number_in_batch);
        column_family_data->SetLogNumber(max_log_number_in_batch);
      }
      AppendVersion(column_family_data, v);
    }

    manifest_file_number_ = pending_manifest_file_number_;
    manifest_file_size_ = new_manifest_file_size;
    prev_log_number_ = edit->prev_log_number_;
  } else {
    Log(InfoLogLevel::ERROR_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
        "Error in committing version %lu to [%s]",
        (unsigned long)v->GetVersionNumber(),
        column_family_data->GetName().c_str());
    delete v;
    if (new_descriptor_log) {
      Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
        "Deleting manifest %" PRIu64 " current manifest %" PRIu64 "\n",
        manifest_file_number_, pending_manifest_file_number_);
      descriptor_log_.reset();
      env_->DeleteFile(
          DescriptorFileName(dbname_, pending_manifest_file_number_));
    }
  }
  pending_manifest_file_number_ = 0;

  // wake up all the waiting writers
  while (true) {
    ManifestWriter* ready = manifest_writers_.front();
    manifest_writers_.pop_front();
    if (ready != &w) {
      ready->status = s;
      ready->done = true;
      ready->cv.Signal();
    }
    if (ready == last_writer) break;
  }
  // Notify new head of write queue
  if (!manifest_writers_.empty()) {
    manifest_writers_.front()->cv.Signal();
  }
  return s;
}

void VersionSet::LogAndApplyCFHelper(VersionEdit* edit) {
  assert(edit->IsColumnFamilyManipulation());
  edit->SetNextFile(next_file_number_);
  edit->SetLastSequence(last_sequence_);
  if (edit->is_column_family_drop_) {
    // if we drop column family, we have to make sure to save max column family,
    // so that we don't reuse existing ID
    edit->SetMaxColumnFamily(column_family_set_->GetMaxColumnFamily());
  }
}

void VersionSet::LogAndApplyHelper(ColumnFamilyData* cfd,
                                   VersionBuilder* builder, Version* v,
                                   VersionEdit* edit, port::Mutex* mu) {
  mu->AssertHeld();
  assert(!edit->IsColumnFamilyManipulation());

  if (edit->has_log_number_) {
    assert(edit->log_number_ >= cfd->GetLogNumber());
    assert(edit->log_number_ < next_file_number_);
  }

  if (!edit->has_prev_log_number_) {
    edit->SetPrevLogNumber(prev_log_number_);
  }
  edit->SetNextFile(next_file_number_);
  edit->SetLastSequence(last_sequence_);

  builder->Apply(edit);
}

Status VersionSet::Recover(
    const std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor>& column_families,
    bool read_only) {
  std::unordered_map<std::string, ColumnFamilyOptions> cf_name_to_options;
  for (auto cf : column_families) {
    cf_name_to_options.insert({cf.name, cf.options});
  }
  // keeps track of column families in manifest that were not found in
  // column families parameters. if those column families are not dropped
  // by subsequent manifest records, Recover() will return failure status
  std::unordered_map<int, std::string> column_families_not_found;

  // Read "CURRENT" file, which contains a pointer to the current manifest file
  std::string manifest_filename;
  Status s = ReadFileToString(
      env_, CurrentFileName(dbname_), &manifest_filename
  );
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }
  if (manifest_filename.empty() ||
      manifest_filename.back() != '\n') {
    return Status::Corruption("CURRENT file does not end with newline");
  }
  // remove the trailing '\n'
  manifest_filename.resize(manifest_filename.size() - 1);
  FileType type;
  bool parse_ok =
      ParseFileName(manifest_filename, &manifest_file_number_, &type);
  if (!parse_ok || type != kDescriptorFile) {
    return Status::Corruption("CURRENT file corrupted");
  }

  Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
      "Recovering from manifest file: %s\n",
      manifest_filename.c_str());

  manifest_filename = dbname_ + "/" + manifest_filename;
  unique_ptr<SequentialFile> manifest_file;
  s = env_->NewSequentialFile(manifest_filename, &manifest_file,
                              env_options_);
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }
  uint64_t manifest_file_size;
  s = env_->GetFileSize(manifest_filename, &manifest_file_size);
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }

  bool have_log_number = false;
  bool have_prev_log_number = false;
  bool have_next_file = false;
  bool have_last_sequence = false;
  uint64_t next_file = 0;
  uint64_t last_sequence = 0;
  uint64_t log_number = 0;
  uint64_t prev_log_number = 0;
  uint32_t max_column_family = 0;
  std::unordered_map<uint32_t, BaseReferencedVersionBuilder*> builders;

  // add default column family
  auto default_cf_iter = cf_name_to_options.find(kDefaultColumnFamilyName);
  if (default_cf_iter == cf_name_to_options.end()) {
    return Status::InvalidArgument("Default column family not specified");
  }
  VersionEdit default_cf_edit;
  default_cf_edit.AddColumnFamily(kDefaultColumnFamilyName);
  default_cf_edit.SetColumnFamily(0);
  ColumnFamilyData* default_cfd =
      CreateColumnFamily(default_cf_iter->second, &default_cf_edit);
  builders.insert({0, new BaseReferencedVersionBuilder(default_cfd)});

  {
    VersionSet::LogReporter reporter;
    reporter.status = &s;
    log::Reader reader(std::move(manifest_file), &reporter, true /*checksum*/,
                       0 /*initial_offset*/);
    Slice record;
    std::string scratch;
    while (reader.ReadRecord(&record, &scratch) && s.ok()) {
      VersionEdit edit;
      s = edit.DecodeFrom(record);
      if (!s.ok()) {
        break;
      }

      // Not found means that user didn't supply that column
      // family option AND we encountered column family add
      // record. Once we encounter column family drop record,
      // we will delete the column family from
      // column_families_not_found.
      bool cf_in_not_found =
          column_families_not_found.find(edit.column_family_) !=
          column_families_not_found.end();
      // in builders means that user supplied that column family
      // option AND that we encountered column family add record
      bool cf_in_builders =
          builders.find(edit.column_family_) != builders.end();

      // they can't both be true
      assert(!(cf_in_not_found && cf_in_builders));

      ColumnFamilyData* cfd = nullptr;

      if (edit.is_column_family_add_) {
        if (cf_in_builders || cf_in_not_found) {
          s = Status::Corruption(
              "Manifest adding the same column family twice");
          break;
        }
        auto cf_options = cf_name_to_options.find(edit.column_family_name_);
        if (cf_options == cf_name_to_options.end()) {
          column_families_not_found.insert(
              {edit.column_family_, edit.column_family_name_});
        } else {
          cfd = CreateColumnFamily(cf_options->second, &edit);
          builders.insert(
              {edit.column_family_, new BaseReferencedVersionBuilder(cfd)});
        }
      } else if (edit.is_column_family_drop_) {
        if (cf_in_builders) {
          auto builder = builders.find(edit.column_family_);
          assert(builder != builders.end());
          delete builder->second;
          builders.erase(builder);
          cfd = column_family_set_->GetColumnFamily(edit.column_family_);
          if (cfd->Unref()) {
            delete cfd;
            cfd = nullptr;
          } else {
            // who else can have reference to cfd!?
            assert(false);
          }
        } else if (cf_in_not_found) {
          column_families_not_found.erase(edit.column_family_);
        } else {
          s = Status::Corruption(
              "Manifest - dropping non-existing column family");
          break;
        }
      } else if (!cf_in_not_found) {
        if (!cf_in_builders) {
          s = Status::Corruption(
              "Manifest record referencing unknown column family");
          break;
        }

        cfd = column_family_set_->GetColumnFamily(edit.column_family_);
        // this should never happen since cf_in_builders is true
        assert(cfd != nullptr);
        if (edit.max_level_ >= cfd->current()->storage_info()->num_levels()) {
          s = Status::InvalidArgument(
              "db has more levels than options.num_levels");
          break;
        }

        // if it is not column family add or column family drop,
        // then it's a file add/delete, which should be forwarded
        // to builder
        auto builder = builders.find(edit.column_family_);
        assert(builder != builders.end());
        builder->second->version_builder()->Apply(&edit);
      }

      if (cfd != nullptr) {
        if (edit.has_log_number_) {
          if (cfd->GetLogNumber() > edit.log_number_) {
            Log(InfoLogLevel::WARN_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
                "MANIFEST corruption detected, but ignored - Log numbers in "
                "records NOT monotonically increasing");
          } else {
            cfd->SetLogNumber(edit.log_number_);
            have_log_number = true;
          }
        }
        if (edit.has_comparator_ &&
            edit.comparator_ != cfd->user_comparator()->Name()) {
          s = Status::InvalidArgument(
              cfd->user_comparator()->Name(),
              "does not match existing comparator " + edit.comparator_);
          break;
        }
      }

      if (edit.has_prev_log_number_) {
        prev_log_number = edit.prev_log_number_;
        have_prev_log_number = true;
      }

      if (edit.has_next_file_number_) {
        next_file = edit.next_file_number_;
        have_next_file = true;
      }

      if (edit.has_max_column_family_) {
        max_column_family = edit.max_column_family_;
      }

      if (edit.has_last_sequence_) {
        last_sequence = edit.last_sequence_;
        have_last_sequence = true;
      }
    }
  }

  if (s.ok()) {
    if (!have_next_file) {
      s = Status::Corruption("no meta-nextfile entry in descriptor");
    } else if (!have_log_number) {
      s = Status::Corruption("no meta-lognumber entry in descriptor");
    } else if (!have_last_sequence) {
      s = Status::Corruption("no last-sequence-number entry in descriptor");
    }

    if (!have_prev_log_number) {
      prev_log_number = 0;
    }

    column_family_set_->UpdateMaxColumnFamily(max_column_family);

    MarkFileNumberUsed(prev_log_number);
    MarkFileNumberUsed(log_number);
  }

  // there were some column families in the MANIFEST that weren't specified
  // in the argument. This is OK in read_only mode
  if (read_only == false && !column_families_not_found.empty()) {
    std::string list_of_not_found;
    for (const auto& cf : column_families_not_found) {
      list_of_not_found += ", " + cf.second;
    }
    list_of_not_found = list_of_not_found.substr(2);
    s = Status::InvalidArgument(
        "You have to open all column families. Column families not opened: " +
        list_of_not_found);
  }

  if (s.ok()) {
    for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
      auto builders_iter = builders.find(cfd->GetID());
      assert(builders_iter != builders.end());
      auto* builder = builders_iter->second->version_builder();

      if (db_options_->max_open_files == -1) {
      // unlimited table cache. Pre-load table handle now.
      // Need to do it out of the mutex.
        builder->LoadTableHandlers();
      }

      Version* v = new Version(cfd, this, current_version_number_++);
      builder->SaveTo(v->storage_info());

      // Install recovered version
      std::vector<uint64_t> size_being_compacted(
          v->storage_info()->num_levels() - 1);
      cfd->compaction_picker()->SizeBeingCompacted(size_being_compacted);
      v->PrepareApply(*cfd->GetLatestMutableCFOptions(), size_being_compacted);
      AppendVersion(cfd, v);
    }

    manifest_file_size_ = manifest_file_size;
    next_file_number_ = next_file + 1;
    last_sequence_ = last_sequence;
    prev_log_number_ = prev_log_number;

    Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
        "Recovered from manifest file:%s succeeded,"
        "manifest_file_number is %lu, next_file_number is %lu, "
        "last_sequence is %lu, log_number is %lu,"
        "prev_log_number is %lu,"
        "max_column_family is %u\n",
        manifest_filename.c_str(), (unsigned long)manifest_file_number_,
        (unsigned long)next_file_number_, (unsigned long)last_sequence_,
        (unsigned long)log_number, (unsigned long)prev_log_number_,
        column_family_set_->GetMaxColumnFamily());

    for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
      Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
          "Column family [%s] (ID %u), log number is %" PRIu64 "\n",
          cfd->GetName().c_str(), cfd->GetID(), cfd->GetLogNumber());
    }
  }

  for (auto builder : builders) {
    delete builder.second;
  }

  return s;
}

Status VersionSet::ListColumnFamilies(std::vector<std::string>* column_families,
                                      const std::string& dbname, Env* env) {
  // these are just for performance reasons, not correcntes,
  // so we're fine using the defaults
  EnvOptions soptions;
  // Read "CURRENT" file, which contains a pointer to the current manifest file
  std::string current;
  Status s = ReadFileToString(env, CurrentFileName(dbname), &current);
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }
  if (current.empty() || current[current.size()-1] != '\n') {
    return Status::Corruption("CURRENT file does not end with newline");
  }
  current.resize(current.size() - 1);

  std::string dscname = dbname + "/" + current;
  unique_ptr<SequentialFile> file;
  s = env->NewSequentialFile(dscname, &file, soptions);
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }

  std::map<uint32_t, std::string> column_family_names;
  // default column family is always implicitly there
  column_family_names.insert({0, kDefaultColumnFamilyName});
  VersionSet::LogReporter reporter;
  reporter.status = &s;
  log::Reader reader(std::move(file), &reporter, true /*checksum*/,
                     0 /*initial_offset*/);
  Slice record;
  std::string scratch;
  while (reader.ReadRecord(&record, &scratch) && s.ok()) {
    VersionEdit edit;
    s = edit.DecodeFrom(record);
    if (!s.ok()) {
      break;
    }
    if (edit.is_column_family_add_) {
      if (column_family_names.find(edit.column_family_) !=
          column_family_names.end()) {
        s = Status::Corruption("Manifest adding the same column family twice");
        break;
      }
      column_family_names.insert(
          {edit.column_family_, edit.column_family_name_});
    } else if (edit.is_column_family_drop_) {
      if (column_family_names.find(edit.column_family_) ==
          column_family_names.end()) {
        s = Status::Corruption(
            "Manifest - dropping non-existing column family");
        break;
      }
      column_family_names.erase(edit.column_family_);
    }
  }

  column_families->clear();
  if (s.ok()) {
    for (const auto& iter : column_family_names) {
      column_families->push_back(iter.second);
    }
  }

  return s;
}

#ifndef ROCKSDB_LITE
Status VersionSet::ReduceNumberOfLevels(const std::string& dbname,
                                        const Options* options,
                                        const EnvOptions& env_options,
                                        int new_levels) {
  if (new_levels <= 1) {
    return Status::InvalidArgument(
        "Number of levels needs to be bigger than 1");
  }

  ColumnFamilyOptions cf_options(*options);
  std::shared_ptr<Cache> tc(NewLRUCache(
      options->max_open_files - 10, options->table_cache_numshardbits,
      options->table_cache_remove_scan_count_limit));
  WriteController wc;
  VersionSet versions(dbname, options, env_options, tc.get(), &wc);
  Status status;

  std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor> dummy;
  ColumnFamilyDescriptor dummy_descriptor(kDefaultColumnFamilyName,
                                          ColumnFamilyOptions(*options));
  dummy.push_back(dummy_descriptor);
  status = versions.Recover(dummy);
  if (!status.ok()) {
    return status;
  }

  Version* current_version =
      versions.GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault()->current();
  auto* vstorage = current_version->storage_info();
  int current_levels = vstorage->num_levels();

  if (current_levels <= new_levels) {
    return Status::OK();
  }

  // Make sure there are file only on one level from
  // (new_levels-1) to (current_levels-1)
  int first_nonempty_level = -1;
  int first_nonempty_level_filenum = 0;
  for (int i = new_levels - 1; i < current_levels; i++) {
    int file_num = vstorage->NumLevelFiles(i);
    if (file_num != 0) {
      if (first_nonempty_level < 0) {
        first_nonempty_level = i;
        first_nonempty_level_filenum = file_num;
      } else {
        char msg[255];
        snprintf(msg, sizeof(msg),
                 "Found at least two levels containing files: "
                 "[%d:%d],[%d:%d].\n",
                 first_nonempty_level, first_nonempty_level_filenum, i,
                 file_num);
        return Status::InvalidArgument(msg);
      }
    }
  }

  // we need to allocate an array with the old number of levels size to
  // avoid SIGSEGV in WriteSnapshot()
  // however, all levels bigger or equal to new_levels will be empty
  std::vector<FileMetaData*>* new_files_list =
      new std::vector<FileMetaData*>[current_levels];
  for (int i = 0; i < new_levels - 1; i++) {
    new_files_list[i] = vstorage->LevelFiles(i);
  }

  if (first_nonempty_level > 0) {
    new_files_list[new_levels - 1] = vstorage->LevelFiles(first_nonempty_level);
  }

  delete[] vstorage -> files_;
  vstorage->files_ = new_files_list;
  vstorage->num_levels_ = new_levels;

  MutableCFOptions mutable_cf_options(*options, ImmutableCFOptions(*options));
  VersionEdit ve;
  port::Mutex dummy_mutex;
  MutexLock l(&dummy_mutex);
  return versions.LogAndApply(
      versions.GetColumnFamilySet()->GetDefault(),
      mutable_cf_options, &ve, &dummy_mutex, nullptr, true);
}

Status VersionSet::DumpManifest(Options& options, std::string& dscname,
                                bool verbose, bool hex) {
  // Open the specified manifest file.
  unique_ptr<SequentialFile> file;
  Status s = options.env->NewSequentialFile(dscname, &file, env_options_);
  if (!s.ok()) {
    return s;
  }

  bool have_prev_log_number = false;
  bool have_next_file = false;
  bool have_last_sequence = false;
  uint64_t next_file = 0;
  uint64_t last_sequence = 0;
  uint64_t prev_log_number = 0;
  int count = 0;
  std::unordered_map<uint32_t, std::string> comparators;
  std::unordered_map<uint32_t, BaseReferencedVersionBuilder*> builders;

  // add default column family
  VersionEdit default_cf_edit;
  default_cf_edit.AddColumnFamily(kDefaultColumnFamilyName);
  default_cf_edit.SetColumnFamily(0);
  ColumnFamilyData* default_cfd =
      CreateColumnFamily(ColumnFamilyOptions(options), &default_cf_edit);
  builders.insert({0, new BaseReferencedVersionBuilder(default_cfd)});

  {
    VersionSet::LogReporter reporter;
    reporter.status = &s;
    log::Reader reader(std::move(file), &reporter, true/*checksum*/,
                       0/*initial_offset*/);
    Slice record;
    std::string scratch;
    while (reader.ReadRecord(&record, &scratch) && s.ok()) {
      VersionEdit edit;
      s = edit.DecodeFrom(record);
      if (!s.ok()) {
        break;
      }

      // Write out each individual edit
      if (verbose) {
        printf("*************************Edit[%d] = %s\n",
                count, edit.DebugString(hex).c_str());
      }
      count++;

      bool cf_in_builders =
          builders.find(edit.column_family_) != builders.end();

      if (edit.has_comparator_) {
        comparators.insert({edit.column_family_, edit.comparator_});
      }

      ColumnFamilyData* cfd = nullptr;

      if (edit.is_column_family_add_) {
        if (cf_in_builders) {
          s = Status::Corruption(
              "Manifest adding the same column family twice");
          break;
        }
        cfd = CreateColumnFamily(ColumnFamilyOptions(options), &edit);
        builders.insert(
            {edit.column_family_, new BaseReferencedVersionBuilder(cfd)});
      } else if (edit.is_column_family_drop_) {
        if (!cf_in_builders) {
          s = Status::Corruption(
              "Manifest - dropping non-existing column family");
          break;
        }
        auto builder_iter = builders.find(edit.column_family_);
        delete builder_iter->second;
        builders.erase(builder_iter);
        comparators.erase(edit.column_family_);
        cfd = column_family_set_->GetColumnFamily(edit.column_family_);
        assert(cfd != nullptr);
        cfd->Unref();
        delete cfd;
        cfd = nullptr;
      } else {
        if (!cf_in_builders) {
          s = Status::Corruption(
              "Manifest record referencing unknown column family");
          break;
        }

        cfd = column_family_set_->GetColumnFamily(edit.column_family_);
        // this should never happen since cf_in_builders is true
        assert(cfd != nullptr);

        // if it is not column family add or column family drop,
        // then it's a file add/delete, which should be forwarded
        // to builder
        auto builder = builders.find(edit.column_family_);
        assert(builder != builders.end());
        builder->second->version_builder()->Apply(&edit);
      }

      if (cfd != nullptr && edit.has_log_number_) {
        cfd->SetLogNumber(edit.log_number_);
      }

      if (edit.has_prev_log_number_) {
        prev_log_number = edit.prev_log_number_;
        have_prev_log_number = true;
      }

      if (edit.has_next_file_number_) {
        next_file = edit.next_file_number_;
        have_next_file = true;
      }

      if (edit.has_last_sequence_) {
        last_sequence = edit.last_sequence_;
        have_last_sequence = true;
      }

      if (edit.has_max_column_family_) {
        column_family_set_->UpdateMaxColumnFamily(edit.max_column_family_);
      }
    }
  }
  file.reset();

  if (s.ok()) {
    if (!have_next_file) {
      s = Status::Corruption("no meta-nextfile entry in descriptor");
      printf("no meta-nextfile entry in descriptor");
    } else if (!have_last_sequence) {
      printf("no last-sequence-number entry in descriptor");
      s = Status::Corruption("no last-sequence-number entry in descriptor");
    }

    if (!have_prev_log_number) {
      prev_log_number = 0;
    }
  }

  if (s.ok()) {
    for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
      auto builders_iter = builders.find(cfd->GetID());
      assert(builders_iter != builders.end());
      auto builder = builders_iter->second->version_builder();

      Version* v = new Version(cfd, this, current_version_number_++);
      builder->SaveTo(v->storage_info());
      std::vector<uint64_t> size_being_compacted(
          v->storage_info()->num_levels() - 1);
      cfd->compaction_picker()->SizeBeingCompacted(size_being_compacted);
      v->PrepareApply(*cfd->GetLatestMutableCFOptions(), size_being_compacted);
      delete builder;

      printf("--------------- Column family \"%s\"  (ID %u) --------------\n",
             cfd->GetName().c_str(), (unsigned int)cfd->GetID());
      printf("log number: %lu\n", (unsigned long)cfd->GetLogNumber());
      auto comparator = comparators.find(cfd->GetID());
      if (comparator != comparators.end()) {
        printf("comparator: %s\n", comparator->second.c_str());
      } else {
        printf("comparator: <NO COMPARATOR>\n");
      }
      printf("%s \n", v->DebugString(hex).c_str());
      delete v;
    }

    next_file_number_ = next_file + 1;
    last_sequence_ = last_sequence;
    prev_log_number_ = prev_log_number;

    printf(
        "next_file_number %lu last_sequence "
        "%lu  prev_log_number %lu max_column_family %u\n",
        (unsigned long)next_file_number_, (unsigned long)last_sequence,
        (unsigned long)prev_log_number,
        column_family_set_->GetMaxColumnFamily());
  }

  return s;
}
#endif  // ROCKSDB_LITE

void VersionSet::MarkFileNumberUsed(uint64_t number) {
  if (next_file_number_ <= number) {
    next_file_number_ = number + 1;
  }
}

Status VersionSet::WriteSnapshot(log::Writer* log) {
  // TODO: Break up into multiple records to reduce memory usage on recovery?

  // WARNING: This method doesn't hold a mutex!!

  // This is done without DB mutex lock held, but only within single-threaded
  // LogAndApply. Column family manipulations can only happen within LogAndApply
  // (the same single thread), so we're safe to iterate.
  for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
    {
      // Store column family info
      VersionEdit edit;
      if (cfd->GetID() != 0) {
        // default column family is always there,
        // no need to explicitly write it
        edit.AddColumnFamily(cfd->GetName());
        edit.SetColumnFamily(cfd->GetID());
      }
      edit.SetComparatorName(
          cfd->internal_comparator().user_comparator()->Name());
      std::string record;
      if (!edit.EncodeTo(&record)) {
        return Status::Corruption(
            "Unable to Encode VersionEdit:" + edit.DebugString(true));
      }
      Status s = log->AddRecord(record);
      if (!s.ok()) {
        return s;
      }
    }

    {
      // Save files
      VersionEdit edit;
      edit.SetColumnFamily(cfd->GetID());

      for (int level = 0; level < cfd->NumberLevels(); level++) {
        for (const auto& f :
             cfd->current()->storage_info()->LevelFiles(level)) {
          edit.AddFile(level, f->fd.GetNumber(), f->fd.GetPathId(),
                       f->fd.GetFileSize(), f->smallest, f->largest,
                       f->smallest_seqno, f->largest_seqno);
        }
      }
      edit.SetLogNumber(cfd->GetLogNumber());
      std::string record;
      if (!edit.EncodeTo(&record)) {
        return Status::Corruption(
            "Unable to Encode VersionEdit:" + edit.DebugString(true));
      }
      Status s = log->AddRecord(record);
      if (!s.ok()) {
        return s;
      }
    }
  }

  return Status::OK();
}

// Opens the mainfest file and reads all records
// till it finds the record we are looking for.
bool VersionSet::ManifestContains(uint64_t manifest_file_number,
                                  const std::string& record) const {
  std::string fname =
      DescriptorFileName(dbname_, manifest_file_number);
  Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
      "ManifestContains: checking %s\n", fname.c_str());
  unique_ptr<SequentialFile> file;
  Status s = env_->NewSequentialFile(fname, &file, env_options_);
  if (!s.ok()) {
    Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
        "ManifestContains: %s\n", s.ToString().c_str());
    Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
        "ManifestContains: is unable to reopen the manifest file  %s",
        fname.c_str());
    return false;
  }
  log::Reader reader(std::move(file), nullptr, true/*checksum*/, 0);
  Slice r;
  std::string scratch;
  bool result = false;
  while (reader.ReadRecord(&r, &scratch)) {
    if (r == Slice(record)) {
      result = true;
      break;
    }
  }
  Log(InfoLogLevel::INFO_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
      "ManifestContains: result = %d\n", result ? 1 : 0);
  return result;
}


uint64_t VersionSet::ApproximateOffsetOf(Version* v, const InternalKey& ikey) {
  uint64_t result = 0;
  const auto* vstorage = v->storage_info();
  for (int level = 0; level < vstorage->num_levels(); level++) {
    const std::vector<FileMetaData*>& files = vstorage->LevelFiles(level);
    for (size_t i = 0; i < files.size(); i++) {
      if (v->cfd_->internal_comparator().Compare(files[i]->largest, ikey) <=
          0) {
        // Entire file is before "ikey", so just add the file size
        result += files[i]->fd.GetFileSize();
      } else if (v->cfd_->internal_comparator().Compare(files[i]->smallest,
                                                        ikey) > 0) {
        // Entire file is after "ikey", so ignore
        if (level > 0) {
          // Files other than level 0 are sorted by meta->smallest, so
          // no further files in this level will contain data for
          // "ikey".
          break;
        }
      } else {
        // "ikey" falls in the range for this table.  Add the
        // approximate offset of "ikey" within the table.
        TableReader* table_reader_ptr;
        Iterator* iter = v->cfd_->table_cache()->NewIterator(
            ReadOptions(), env_options_, v->cfd_->internal_comparator(),
            files[i]->fd, &table_reader_ptr);
        if (table_reader_ptr != nullptr) {
          result += table_reader_ptr->ApproximateOffsetOf(ikey.Encode());
        }
        delete iter;
      }
    }
  }
  return result;
}

void VersionSet::AddLiveFiles(std::vector<FileDescriptor>* live_list) {
  // pre-calculate space requirement
  int64_t total_files = 0;
  for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
    Version* dummy_versions = cfd->dummy_versions();
    for (Version* v = dummy_versions->next_; v != dummy_versions;
         v = v->next_) {
      const auto* vstorage = v->storage_info();
      for (int level = 0; level < vstorage->num_levels(); level++) {
        total_files += vstorage->LevelFiles(level).size();
      }
    }
  }

  // just one time extension to the right size
  live_list->reserve(live_list->size() + total_files);

  for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
    Version* dummy_versions = cfd->dummy_versions();
    for (Version* v = dummy_versions->next_; v != dummy_versions;
         v = v->next_) {
      const auto* vstorage = v->storage_info();
      for (int level = 0; level < vstorage->num_levels(); level++) {
        for (const auto& f : vstorage->LevelFiles(level)) {
          live_list->push_back(f->fd);
        }
      }
    }
  }
}

Iterator* VersionSet::MakeInputIterator(Compaction* c) {
  auto cfd = c->column_family_data();
  ReadOptions read_options;
  read_options.verify_checksums =
    cfd->options()->verify_checksums_in_compaction;
  read_options.fill_cache = false;

  // Level-0 files have to be merged together.  For other levels,
  // we will make a concatenating iterator per level.
  // TODO(opt): use concatenating iterator for level-0 if there is no overlap
  const int space = (c->level() == 0 ?
      c->input_levels(0)->num_files + c->num_input_levels() - 1:
      c->num_input_levels());
  Iterator** list = new Iterator*[space];
  int num = 0;
  for (int which = 0; which < c->num_input_levels(); which++) {
    if (c->input_levels(which)->num_files != 0) {
      if (c->level(which) == 0) {
        const LevelFilesBrief* flevel = c->input_levels(which);
        for (size_t i = 0; i < flevel->num_files; i++) {
          list[num++] = cfd->table_cache()->NewIterator(
              read_options, env_options_compactions_,
              cfd->internal_comparator(), flevel->files[i].fd, nullptr,
              true /* for compaction */);
        }
      } else {
        // Create concatenating iterator for the files from this level
        list[num++] = NewTwoLevelIterator(new LevelFileIteratorState(
              cfd->table_cache(), read_options, env_options_,
              cfd->internal_comparator(), true /* for_compaction */,
              false /* prefix enabled */),
            new LevelFileNumIterator(cfd->internal_comparator(),
                                     c->input_levels(which)));
      }
    }
  }
  assert(num <= space);
  Iterator* result = NewMergingIterator(
      &c->column_family_data()->internal_comparator(), list, num);
  delete[] list;
  return result;
}

// verify that the files listed in this compaction are present
// in the current version
bool VersionSet::VerifyCompactionFileConsistency(Compaction* c) {
#ifndef NDEBUG
  Version* version = c->column_family_data()->current();
  const VersionStorageInfo* vstorage = version->storage_info();
  if (c->input_version() != version) {
    Log(InfoLogLevel::ERROR_LEVEL, db_options_->info_log,
        "[%s] VerifyCompactionFileConsistency version mismatch",
        c->column_family_data()->GetName().c_str());
  }

  // verify files in level
  int level = c->level();
  for (int i = 0; i < c->num_input_files(0); i++) {
    uint64_t number = c->input(0, i)->fd.GetNumber();

    // look for this file in the current version
    bool found = false;
    for (unsigned int j = 0; j < vstorage->files_[level].size(); j++) {
      FileMetaData* f = vstorage->files_[level][j];
      if (f->fd.GetNumber() == number) {
        found = true;
        break;
      }
    }
    if (!found) {
      return false; // input files non existant in current version
    }
  }
  // verify level+1 files
  level++;
  for (int i = 0; i < c->num_input_files(1); i++) {
    uint64_t number = c->input(1, i)->fd.GetNumber();

    // look for this file in the current version
    bool found = false;
    for (unsigned int j = 0; j < vstorage->files_[level].size(); j++) {
      FileMetaData* f = vstorage->files_[level][j];
      if (f->fd.GetNumber() == number) {
        found = true;
        break;
      }
    }
    if (!found) {
      return false; // input files non existant in current version
    }
  }
#endif
  return true;     // everything good
}

Status VersionSet::GetMetadataForFile(uint64_t number, int* filelevel,
                                      FileMetaData** meta,
                                      ColumnFamilyData** cfd) {
  for (auto cfd_iter : *column_family_set_) {
    Version* version = cfd_iter->current();
    const auto* vstorage = version->storage_info();
    for (int level = 0; level < vstorage->num_levels(); level++) {
      for (const auto& file : vstorage->LevelFiles(level)) {
        if (file->fd.GetNumber() == number) {
          *meta = file;
          *filelevel = level;
          *cfd = cfd_iter;
          return Status::OK();
        }
      }
    }
  }
  return Status::NotFound("File not present in any level");
}

void VersionSet::GetLiveFilesMetaData(std::vector<LiveFileMetaData>* metadata) {
  for (auto cfd : *column_family_set_) {
    for (int level = 0; level < cfd->NumberLevels(); level++) {
      for (const auto& file :
           cfd->current()->storage_info()->LevelFiles(level)) {
        LiveFileMetaData filemetadata;
        filemetadata.column_family_name = cfd->GetName();
        uint32_t path_id = file->fd.GetPathId();
        if (path_id < db_options_->db_paths.size()) {
          filemetadata.db_path = db_options_->db_paths[path_id].path;
        } else {
          assert(!db_options_->db_paths.empty());
          filemetadata.db_path = db_options_->db_paths.back().path;
        }
        filemetadata.name = MakeTableFileName("", file->fd.GetNumber());
        filemetadata.level = level;
        filemetadata.size = file->fd.GetFileSize();
        filemetadata.smallestkey = file->smallest.user_key().ToString();
        filemetadata.largestkey = file->largest.user_key().ToString();
        filemetadata.smallest_seqno = file->smallest_seqno;
        filemetadata.largest_seqno = file->largest_seqno;
        metadata->push_back(filemetadata);
      }
    }
  }
}

void VersionSet::GetObsoleteFiles(std::vector<FileMetaData*>* files) {
  files->insert(files->end(), obsolete_files_.begin(), obsolete_files_.end());
  obsolete_files_.clear();
}

ColumnFamilyData* VersionSet::CreateColumnFamily(
    const ColumnFamilyOptions& cf_options, VersionEdit* edit) {
  assert(edit->is_column_family_add_);

  Version* dummy_versions = new Version(nullptr, this);
  // Ref() dummy version once so that later we can call Unref() to delete it
  // by avoiding calling "delete" explicitly (~Version is private)
  dummy_versions->Ref();
  auto new_cfd = column_family_set_->CreateColumnFamily(
      edit->column_family_name_, edit->column_family_, dummy_versions,
      cf_options);

  Version* v = new Version(new_cfd, this, current_version_number_++);

  AppendVersion(new_cfd, v);
  // GetLatestMutableCFOptions() is safe here without mutex since the
  // cfd is not available to client
  new_cfd->CreateNewMemtable(*new_cfd->GetLatestMutableCFOptions());
  new_cfd->SetLogNumber(edit->log_number_);
  return new_cfd;
}

}  // namespace rocksdb